DAYS OF THE WEEK:
In English, all the names for the days of the week come from the Anglo-Saxon tradition (of Germanic inspiration), while the names of the months are derived from Latin (dating back to the Roman conquest).
THE BEGINNING OF A DAY:
In some cultures, the beginning of a new day was considered to be at sunset. The sacred Jewish year and the Christian eve of feast-days were equally important. Old expressions related to “a week” (“se’en-night”- archaic, no longer used) and “two weeks” (“fort’night”) in the Anglo-Saxon culture (ancient Britons) speak of the “night”. The ancient Greek, the Mohammedans, the Chinese also start the day at sunset.
In other cultures (Syrians, Persians, Modern Greek) the day begins at sunrise.
Ancient Egyptians considered that each day began at noon (because they were worshippers of the Sun God Ra). Modern astronomers kept this tradition.
The day began at midnight for the Romans. In modern times, the English, French, Dutch, Germans, Spaniards, Portuguese and Americans also consider midnight as the beginning of the day.
SUNDAY – was considered the first day of the week. In Old English it was called Sunnerdaeg, and it was dedicated to the Sun god.
MONDAY – the second day of the week (“day of the Moon” or Monandaeg in Anglo-Saxon)
Monday was observed as a non-working day by various guilds (shoemakers etc.). St. Monday or St. Lundi is the facetious (mocking) name given to it by others
TUESDAY – comes from the name of Tiu (or Tiw, or Tyr) who, in Scandinavian mythology, was the son of Odin and brother of Thor. In Roman mythology he can be identified with Mars, the god of war (whereby the name of this day in French is “mardi”). Etymologists consider that Tiu can be equated with the Greek major god Zeus (in Latin = Deus; in Sanskrit = devas)
WEDNESDAY – the fourth day of the week was originally “Woden’s Day” (or “Odin’s Day”), called by the French “mercredi” because they equal it to the day of god Mercury.
The Persians regard this as a “red-letter day” (= a lucky day, usually a festival took place – Christian priests adopted this writing for the calendar) because the Moon was created in the fourth day as written in the book of Genesis
THURSDAY – was the day of the god Thor (called by the French “jeudi” after Jove = Jupiter, who was also a god of the thunder, just like Thor). In the old times, Thursday was also called “Thunderday”.
FRIDAY – was the sixth day of the week. In ancient Rome it was called dies Veneris (the day dedicated to Venus) and this was the etymology of “vendredi” in French. The nearest equivalent to Venus among the Northern goddesses was Frigg (or Freyja). The form in Old English was “frige dag”. Freyja was the wife of Odin, goddess of love, marriage and of the dead and she always wore a necklace called Brisingamen. When Odin left her she cried with golden tears.
The Norsemen considered Friday as the luckiest day in the week and that is why it was the best day for weddings and other celebrations. With Christian religion, things changed because Friday was the day when Christ was crucified.
For Mohammedans, Friday is the equivalent of Sabbath (because they say Adam was created on a Friday and, also on a Friday, Adam and Eve ate the forbidden apple; they also died on a Friday).
Buddhists and Brahmins consider it unlucky.
In England, there is a saying according to which “A Friday moon brings foul weather”, but it is not unlucky to be born on a Friday, because “Friday’s child is loving and giving”.
It is considered unlucky for ships to put to sea on a Friday (however, this is what Columbus did in 1492 … and he discovered America!)
In mediaeval times, condemned criminals were executed on Fridays so it was also called “Hanging day”.
Friday 13th – is particularly unlucky. Originally, it is said to come from an old Scandinavian tradition – at a banquet in Walhalla, Loki intruded, he was the 13th guest and then Balder (son of Odin, god of Light) was killed.
Paraskevi-dekatria-phobia = the irrational fear of Friday the 13th (from Greek)
SATURDAY – was the seventh day of the week. In Old Anglo-Saxon it was called Saeterdaeg, adapted from the Latin Saturni dies (the day dedicated to the worship of Saturn). There was also a festival (Saturnalia) that lasted for 7 days, starting with the 19th of December – a time of freedom from any restraint, no business took place, law courts were suspended, schools were closed, no criminals were punished. The character of the “fool” /“buffoon” seems to have inspired the Romans’ ill-treatment (“Passions”) of Jesus on Crucifixion day.
SPECIFIC EXPRESSIONS – IDIOMS:
A week of Sundays – meaning a long time, an indefinite period
Week-work – this goes back to the feudalist period, when a lord’s land was worked by tenants (usually 3 days a week compulsory work) (serfdom).
He has had his day – meaning that his youth days are over
Today a man, tomorrow a mouse – meaning that one day you can have it all, then the next day you can lose all you have
To lose the day – to lose a battle, to be defeated (from the mediaeval times, but today it is still used metaphorically)
To win / gain the day – it is its opposite, meaning that you have been successful
Daylight Saving – the idea of changing the official time during summer seems to have been put forward by Benjamin Franklin after the American States won their independence. But the idea was finally adopted only in 1916 in Germany, closely followed by England because of wartime restrictions. In Britain it became permanent by an Act of 1925 when it received the name of Summer Time. It began the 3rd Saturday in April (unless that was the Easter Day) and ended on the day following the first Saturday in October. Since 1961 it has been extended by 6 weeks (beginning in March and ending in October).
To let daylight into someone – to pierce a person with a sword or bullet
Dayspring (poetical) – the dawn
De die in diem – from day to day continuously, until the business is completed
The-swing-it-till-Monday-basket – the nickname for things that can be postponed until Monday
When three Thursdays come together – never
Not in a Month of Sundays – never
A Sunday Saint – someone who strictly observes all religious ordinances only on Sundays
MONTHS OF THE YEAR:
JANUARY – it was the month dedicated by Romans to the god Janus (the god who kept the gate of Heaven – the guardian of gates and doors) who presided the entrance into the year and, having two faces, could look both forward and backward in time. The doors of temples dedicated to Janus were open during war and closed in times of peace.
The Dutch called this month “Lauwmaand” (=frosty-month).
The Saxons called it Wulf-monath, because wolves were very dangerous at that time of the year due to the fact that food was generally very scarce. After the introduction of Christianity, this month was given the name of Se aeftera geola (“The after-yule”, meaning after Christmas) or Forma monath (=the first month).
After the French Revolutions, the French called this first month Nivôse (= the snow-month) and it started on 21/22/23 December, lasting until 20/21/22 January.
[YULE (in Old English “gēol”) came from the Icelandish “jǒl” which was the name for a heathen festival at the winter solstice.]
FEBRUARY – was the month of purification for the ancient Romans (Februo = I purify by sacrifice = catharsis). Hence, the 2nd of Feb. is the day of Purification of the Blessed Virgin.
The Anglo-Saxons called this month “Sprout-kale” from the sprouting of kale (=cabbage). The French revolutionaries called it “Pluviôse” (rainy month).
In Scotland, tradition has it that February “borrowed” 3 days from January (12-13-14). If these are stormy, the rest of the year will have good weather; if they are fine, the rest will be marked by bad weather.
MARCH – the name comes from the Roman god of war Mars. The Old Dutch called it “Lentmaand” (and this is where the term LENT comes from, since March is always in Lent).
The Saxons called it Hreth-monath / Hlyd-monath (=the rough month, because there were always cold winds in this month). The French Republicans called it Ventôse (=windy) and it lasted between 20 February – 20 March.
Anglo-Saxon tradition has it that the last 3 days in March were “borrowed days” (from the month of April). There is even a proverb that says “March borrows 3 days of April, and they are ill!” (=cold, rainy, windy).
APRIL – was the “opening month” (from Latin “aprire”), because trees unfold, all nature opens with new life. The French Revolutionaries called it “Germinal” (time of budding) – 21 March – 19 April.
April fool (Poisson d’avril in French; Gowk in Scots, meaning cuckoo). 25 March used to be the New Year’s Day, festivities usually lasted for 8 days so April 1st was the culminating point in the celebrations, as well as their ending point. The term possibly comes from Roman tradition (Cerealia, a celebration held at the beginning of April. Proserpina was taken by god Pluto into the underworld and her mother Ceres, goddess of cereals, heard her screams and tried to find her, but her search was “a fool’s errand” – in vain).
MAY – The Anglo-Saxons called this month Thrimilce (because cows could be milked three times a day). The modern name seems to come from Latin (Maia being the goddess of growth and increase – from multus-maior-maximus).
In Dutch it was called Bloumaand (the month of blossoms).
The French Revolutionaries called it Floréal (the time of flowers) – 20 April – 20 May.
Mayday – the first of May – a time for heathen celebrations – electing a May Queen, dancing around a Maypole, lighting bonfires (nature worship).
Very tall, ugly women are sometimes called “maypoles”.
JUNE – is the sixth month of the year. It took its name from the Roman “Junius” the term describing young people. It could also come from Juno, queen of heaven, sister and wife of Jupiter.
The Old Dutch called it Zomer-maand (=summer-month). The Anglo-Saxons called it Sere-monath (=dry-month) and Lida aerra (=joy-time).
The French Revolutionaries called it Prairial (prairie = plain, meadow) – 20 May – 18 June.
Marriages in June are said to be very lucky (old Roman superstition related to the June calends, as Juno was the protector of women from birth to death).
JULY – is the 7th month. It was named “Iulius” by Marc Anthony in honour of Julius Caesar. It was formerly called Quintilis (the 5th). Until the 18th century it was pronounced [dzúli].
The Old Dutch called it Hooy-maand (=hay-month). The Old Saxons called it Maedd-Monath (the cattle were brought into the meadows to feed) or Lida aeftevr (the second mild or genial month).
The French Revolutionaries called it Messidor (harvest month) – June 19 – July 18.
AUGUST – Initially called Sextilis (the 6th month from March when the year began) it was renamed by Octavius Augustus in honour of himself (he lived between 63 BC – 14 AD and renamed this month in 8 AD) when he became the first Roman emperor. This was “his lucky month”.
Its old Dutch name was Oostmaand (= harvest month). The old Saxons called it Weodmonath (“weed-month” but weed referred to vegetation in general). The French called it Thermidor (=hot month) – 19 July – 17 August.
SEPTEMBER – was the 7th month of the Roman year that started in March. The Old Dutch called it Herst-maand (meaning the “autumn month) while the old Saxons called it Gerst-monath (barley month) or Haefest-monath. When Christianity became official religion on the main island, they changed the name into Halig-monath (=Holy month, because it included the Nativity of the Virgin Mary on the 8th, the Holy Cross day on the 14th and St. Michael’s day on the 29th).
The French republicans called it Fructidor (the fruit-month) – 18 August – 16 September.
OCTOBER – was the 8th month of the ancient Roman calendar. The Old Dutch called it Wynmaand and in Old English the equivalent was Winmonath (wine-month, or the time of the vintage). It also bore the name of Winter-fylleth (winter full moon). The French revolutionaries called it Vendémiaire (also “time of vintage) – 22 September – 21 October.
NOVEMBER – was the 9th month in the Roman calendar. The Old Dutch name was Slaght-maand (=slaughter-month) because cattle were slain and salted down for winter time. The Old Saxon name was Wind-monath (wind-month) and it was the time when fishermen brought their boats ashore until the next spring. The Saxons also called it Blot-monath (=blood month), an equivalent of the Ditch name.
The French republicans called it Brumaire (fog-month) – 23 October – 21 November.
DECEMBER – was the 10th month in the initial Roman calendar. It was the time of the Saturnalia.
Bibliography:
Etymological dictionaries
The Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, 1994 edition, Wordsworth Reference books
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miercuri, 23 ianuarie 2008
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Examples of cultural preeminence of the English-speaking peoples
1. Monarchy on the British Isles
Indeed, the inhabitants of the British Isles were not the inventors of the monarchy. The term itself comes from old Greek, a language in which mono archon meant “one ruler” (archein = to rule) and defined the ancient type of totalitarian ruler, specific for all ancient cultures. The modern understanding of this term has lost its initial meaning, now referring to the ruler of a country, who passes on the attributes of his/her power to a member of the same family, according to hereditary rules, or by appointment (in less frequent cases – when the Parliament of the respective monarchy decides who should be the next King or Queen). Therefore, most monarchs inherit their title and continue to rule for the rest of their lives.
For the modern person, monarchy is connected to tradition, to a set of somewhat rigid rules which seem to “ignore” the spectacular changes of the modern world. One of them preserves the link (specific mainly for ancient times) between politics and religion: in the European monarchies, for instance, any coronation ceremony is performed by the head of the Church (the Pope, the Archbishop of Canterbury etc.) – thus preserving a long enduring tradition, that of the Roman Empire. In time, and especially in the 16th and 17th centuries, absolute monarchs made great efforts to justify what they considered as their “divine rights” on Earth. Yet, by that time, long fought for rights of nobles and burg citizens alike had concluded with the writing of fundamental documents (constitutions) which limited the monarch’s powers.
When asked about the English monarchy, most people think of William the Conqueror and the mediaeval times. Yet England had had many monarchs before that, during the rule of the Anglo-Saxons. Starting with the 5th century A.D. the Anglo-Saxon kings continued to lead the communities living on that land until 1066, based on a well structured social and political system and a common language which united those communities. Kings were followed on the throne by their eldest son (or daughter) – the system based on cognatic primogeniture, which was preserved throughout the Middle Age and modern times. In other parts of Europe, monarchies followed the rule of the agnatic primogeniture (whereby women were excluded from potential succession – similarly to the Salic law).
The monarchic concept was also exported to various territories which became part of the British colonial Empire. Local rulers became regents (vassals of the British King or Queen) and, though having limited powers due to the presence of British Governors, exerted a totalitarian rule over their own communities.
Today, the British monarchy is one of only ten surviving European monarchies. The role of the monarch has diminished in time, and especially during the 20th century. Queen Elizabeth II, for instance, has limited powers and only a decorative role in the context of British political decisions. Tradition, however, makes her one of the most respected and loved personalities in her country.
2. Political organization (first Parliament)
The political institution of the Parliament originated in England in the Middle Age. But the Anglo-Saxons also had a council of elders whose task was to take the right decisions for the community – the witenagemot [witunúgimot]. In Old English, this means “meeting of counsellors” (witan = counsellors of the Anglo-Saxon King – all of whom belonged to the A-S aristocracy). The Anglo-Saxon witenagemot included representatives of the nobility and religious leaders – the two categories with a major influence in the state. The number of council members varied according to local each king and his decisions; the counsellors had to give their assent in what laws, taxes, defence or negotiations with other princes were concerned. The meetings of the witan were not regular but they took place at any time as chosen by the king for taking decisions in important matters (See http://www.infoplease.com/ for other details).
In the 13th century the kings of Britain gathered the aristocracy and clergy representatives around them under the name of Curia Regis (Royal Court). This gathering laid the foundation for what is now known as the House of Lords. Members of Curia Regis only had executive powers, because all major decisions were taken by the king himself.
In 1265 (during the so-called “Barons’ War”) Simon de Montfort organized a Parliament which included representatives of Anglo-Saxon counties, towns and lesser clergy in an effort to gain the support of middle classes. Thirty years later (1295) Edward I summoned the Model Parliament that included high ranked and lesser clergymen, merchants, two knights from each county, and two representatives from each town in the effort to organize a body that would represent all major social classes, and this type of council remained unchanged for more than 50 years.
However, little by little, the representatives of the clergy withdrew from this Parliament almost completely (only 2 of them were left) but the remaining members gradually built the unitary body that took the name of House of Commons.
By the 15th century the Parliament had lost its administrative and legislative powers, especially due to the fact that the York kings and then the Tudor monarchs were very strong and turned the Parliament into an instrument of their will. However, during the last four centuries, periods of totalitarian rule alternated with times when the Parliament became stronger. The 20th century saw the monarch’s powers reduced to matters of protocol and traditional ritual. Once a year, the monarch speaks in front of the House of Commons (where he/she is only admitted after performing a special ritual – knocking three times on the massive doors) about the state of the nation; the tradition of this speech was established in the 15th century.
3. Major legal documents (Magna Charta 1215)
Also known under the name of “Mother of all Constitutions”, Magna Charta Libertatum, the legal document which acknowledged the rights of English nobles and restricted the totalitarian powers of the king was passed by king John (also known as “Lackland”) in 1215. Since Britain is still a monarchy, Magna Charta is still valid today, not having been replaced by a modern type of constitution. Britain and Israel are the only two countries in the world that do not have a “constitution” (a single representative legal document), but a number of legal documents which, together, stand for such an act.
Magna Carta Libertatum (“The Great Charter of Freedoms”) was issued in 1215, and it is considered the basis for what constitutional British law is today. Historians consider that it largely influenced the US Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Also, it is considered “one of the most important documents in the history of democracy” – Wikipedia).
Reason for being written: disagreements between King John (absolutist monarch, in the tradition of Norman kings) and the English aristocrats (who wanted the king to renounce certain rights and to abide by the law).
Many of its initial clauses were renewed during the late Middle Ages and in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Effects: It limited the power and prerogatives of the King or Queen (but some of these were reinstated during the following centuries).
The Petition of Rights is another key document of the British legal system. It was passed by the English Parliament during Charles I reign (1628).
Reasons for being written: trying unsuccessfully to avoid a civil war, aristocrats aimed to stop arbitrary arrests and imprisonments (“contrary to Magna Carta”), the king’s interference with property rights, the forced loans and the fact that the “habeas corpus” law was not enforced.
Effects: the fact that the King maintained his rights, although he had promised to “look into the abuses”, determined the outburst of the Civil War.
The Bill of Rights (1689) is an act which was passed by the Parliament of England (complete title: An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown) and which, together with Magna Carta, the Act of Settlement and various other Parliament Acts, is considered one of the basic documents of English constitutional law.
The Bill of Rights is also an important part of the legal system of some Commonwealth states (e.g. New Zealand), and a similar document (called the Claim of Right) is applied in Scotland.
Reason for being written: to assert the citizens’ fundamental rights (e.g. the right to petition the Monarch, the right to bear arms for defence) and to define certain obligations of the monarch (e.g. he/she must always ask for the consent of the Parliament for certain actions of the Crown – for instance, in case of war). Unlike the Bill of Rights of the US, this is only a list of rights referring to the people as represented in the Parliament (only Magna Carta sets out individual rights).
Effects: The first 8 amendments to the US Constitution are based on the English Bill of Rights.
The Act of Settlement (1701) was passed by the English Parliament, being an important legal document for the future of the Royalty.
Reason for being written: in order to settle the succession to the throne in favour of Protestant monarchs.
King William III was a widower and had no children, and according to the existing law the line of succession was limited. The main purpose was to allow the succession to continue in the Protestant line, and to exclude any Catholic claims to the throne.
Effects: no Catholic monarchs in England/Britain since that time.
The Acts of Union (1706/1707 with Scotland, 1800/1801 with Ireland)
Reason for being signed: these acts confirmed the union of Scotland and Ireland respectively, to the Kingdom of England, as an effect of political will.
One of the reasons on the part of the English was to establish the Royal succession along Protestant lines. Also, England worried that a Scottish king might make alliances against England.
Effects: through the Act of Union of 1707, a new state – The Kingdom of Great Britain – was created.
The Parliament of England and that of Scotland were dissolved and a new Parliament emerged – the Parliament of Great Britain, based at Westminster.
In the case of the Act of Union with the Irish (passed 1800/ made effective1801) non-Anglicans had no right to become members of the Parliament (around 90% of the Irish population was thus excluded). The newly emerging state took the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
In order to offer larger representational rights to all citizens, in 1829 a Catholic Emancipation Act was passed, allowing Irish Catholics to become members of the Parliament.
4. Break-up with traditional state religion (Henry VIII)
Henry VIII is mostly known for three major reasons: for being an absolute monarch, for breaking away from the dominance of the Pope and Catholicism (thereby setting up a new Christian confession named The Church of England along with the dissolution of all monasteries), as well as for having had six wives (of whom only the last outlived him, the others having had quite dramatic deaths).
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England for an extensive presentation of Henry VIII’s life and actions.
The most important event which took place during his reign is the so-called English Reformation, which led to the replacement of Papal supremacy by the Church of England. Documentary sources present the king’s decision as having been motivated primarily by political reasons (all catholic churches and monasteries were very rich and independent from the English monarch, because their leader was the Pope). Catholic communities were very powerful and Catholic counselors exerted their dominance at the Royal Court as well, putting constant pressure on the king. The riches of said churches and monasteries were also considered as an important source for financing various state projects at Henry’s will. The pretext, however, was a more mundane one – the king seemingly wanting to break his marriage with Catherine of Aragon in order to marry a younger lady, Ann Boleyn (in hope of producing a male heir).
The breech with the Pope in Rome took place in the spring of 1534; a year before that the Pope had excommunicated the rebel king (some documentary sources place this event as late as 1338). The immediate result was England’s religious independence, which inspired other European countries to break away from Rome and Catholicism, by embracing Protestant confessions.
The cultural background was appropriate for such a move. It was the time of Martin Luther and of his claim that the Catholic Church had become heretical and no longer upheld the original teachings of Jesus and the Apostles. It was a time when Catholic priests sold indulgencies – papers by which, in exchange for a sum of money, they granted people’s ascent to Heavens and the forgiveness of all sins – thereby gathering large amounts of money which could not be touched by the civil state.
Henry VIII determined the Parliament to pass a number of acts which neutralized any further action by the Catholic Church on the English territory; he himself was declared “the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England”; anyone who challenged this title risked the death penalty for treason.
Being a monarch who had great faith in his own power and authority, Henry VIII also made certain changes in the type of vocabulary used in the Royal Court. He was the first to use the term “Majesty” (inspired from French) as an alternative for the existing “Royal Highness” or “Grace”. In 1535 he proclaimed himself “Henry VIII, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith, Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in Earth Supreme Head”.
5. Religious persecution as reason for colonization (James I – 1603; Pilgrim Fathers - 1620)
1620 is conventionally known as the starting year for massive immigrations to Northern America. Previously, Sir Walter Raleigh's Roanoke colony arrived in Virginia in 1587 (with 120 colonists, of whom only 17 women). That same year (1587), the first American-English baby was born: her name was Virginia Dare, and she was actually named after the region where the settlement had taken place.
The religious reasons were the main cause for trying to leave England in search of a new life, far away from home:
- Puritan religious beliefs were considered intolerable under James I (a Catholic), who came to the throne of England after the death of Elizabeth I, in 1603
- Marriage was considered a civil affair, not a religious sacrament (to be handled by the state). Marriage was a “contract”, mutually agreed by man and woman, for procreation and avoidance of adultery.
- icons and religious symbols were rejected
- rejection of (Catholic) Church hierarchy
- no celebration for Christmas and Easter (celebrations “invented by man to remember Jesus”); no work on Sundays
The period which started with the symbolic year 1620 and ended with the fight for independence of the 1760s is commonly known as the “Colonial era”. Little by little, the colonists’ settlements grouped into the 13 British colonies which later formed the United States.
They had many things in common: the language (English, although Dutch could still be heard in certain parts of the British-held territory – for instance on the Island of Manhattan), various economic interests (e.g. the East India Company, the first private chartered company whose overseas rights were granted by the British Crown, set up a branch in Boston), the British Monarchy tradition and the acknowledged psychological and social force of a strong nation.
6. The concept of “revolution”
The modern concept of “revolution” seems to have its roots in the so-called “Glorious Revolution” of 1688, during the period when England was ruled by the Stuart family.
The 17th century frictions between the totalitarian kings and the Parliament reached their peak during the Civil War which saw Oliver Cromwell assume the power in the state after beheading king Charles I Stuart in 1649. But Cromwell’s new state only lasted until 1658 when, upon his death, the Parliament decided to invite Charles II to restore the monarchy and become king. From a historical point of view, this was the so-called Restoration.
Unfortunately, after having stayed in exile in France all through the period of Cromwell’s rule, Charles II had also learned the authoritarian ruling methods of Louis XIV (the French king who once said: “L’état c’est moi!”), that he was now ready to apply in England. This led to an even stronger discontent between the new king and the Parliament. Here are some of the issues separating the two powers of the state[1]:
- the King is above the law (Charles II) – vs. the King must abide by the law (Parliament);
- the King favoured Catholicism (under French influence), while the Parliament wished to continue the Protestant tradition
- the King saw France as an ally, while the Parliament saw it as the fiercest enemy
- the King wanted to have complete authority over tax collection and personal expenditures, while the Parliament considered that it should have the final decision in this matter
- the King ignored the judicial system and wanted to be the only one to decide punishments, while the Parliament considered that any impeachment should be made according to the law
Upon Charles’ death, his brother James II ascended to the throne, in spite of the Parliament’s protests, which were mainly religious in nature (he was also a Catholic). When the frictions between the King and the Parliament reached a new climax, members of the Parliament contacted James’s daughter Mary Stuart and her husband, William of Orange (the Dutch prince), proposing them to seize the throne. Eventually James II abdicated in 1689 and William of Orange and his wife started a co-reign on the throne of England.
It was the only time in the history of England when this happened. Usually, the wife or husband of the monarch is called a “consort” (“Prince consort” or “Queen consort”).
Legal consequence: in 1689, the Parliament passed the English Bill of Rights, the Toleration Act, and the Mutiny Act that collectively committed the monarchs to respect Parliament and Parliament's laws.
Financial consequence: the constitutional credibility of the English Parliament determined a renewed trust in the English currency. “The Glorious Revolution unleashed a revolution in public finance. The most prominent element was the introduction of long-run borrowing by the government, because such borrowing absolutely relied on the government's fiscal credibility.”[2]
“Credible government debt formed the basis of the Bank of England in 1694 and the core of the London stock market. The combination of these changes has been called the Financial Revolution and was essential for Britain's emergence as a Great Power in the eighteenth century.”[3]
7. The institution of the “Prime Minister” and his “cabinet”
The house of the Hanoverians included four kings by the name of George, and this is why this period is also known as “Georgian Britain”. It started in 1714 (when George I became a king) and ended in 1820 (when George III died). However, the Hanoverian ruling family produced two more monarchs: William IV and Victoria.
The Georgian period is remembered due to a series of facts that marked the cultural and historical development of Britain – as a country and as an empire:
a. GEORGE I (1714 - 1727) did not speak English so he could not rule properly, therefore he appointed trusted politicians to be responsible for all governing activities. These were the first “Prime Ministers” that Britain had and they grouped around them a number of politicians – the future “Cabinet” – to take care of various parts of the governing effort.
b. Due to irresponsible financial manoeuvring (the national debt in his time reached 31 million pounds) the stock market crashed and the government as well as thousands of investors were declared bankrupt. From 1720s on the Bank of England became officially responsible for the finances of the country and British economy became “the best managed” in Europe over the next centuries.
c. During the reign of GEORGE II (1727 – 1760) Prince Charles Stuart marched into England in an attempt to free Scotland (which had become part of Britain in 1707) and take the crown. He was eventually defeated but became a major Scottish hero, along with Mary Stuart.
d. Social stability was at a high level. The system was focused on protecting the landlords’ interests while the exercise of influence worked in the relationships with the other social layers.
e. The British Museum was founded in 1753, first based on the collections of Sir Hans Sloane and Sir Robert Cotton, to which the earls of Oxford added their personal library. The Royal Library, founded by Henry VII also became a part of the British Museum.
f. A “Seven Years War” with France began during his reign (1755) and ended during the reign of George III (1763). The war resulted in new territories being added to the British Empire (in Canada, Florida, Grenada, Senegal and East of the Mississippi River). The Indian sub-continent also became a territory exclusively administered by the British (France had also had interests there). The East India Company became the most important trade company in the area, bringing all kinds of products to Britain.
g. GEORGE III (1760 – 1820) was insane and often proved unfit to rule. During his reign the American colonies broke with the British rule and became independent after the Revolution (1775-1783).
h. Also during his reign Ireland was officially unified with Great Britain (1801), which turned Great Britain into the United Kingdom.
i. Horatio Nelson became a national hero after the naval victories over Napoleon (the Battle of the Nile – 1798 and Trafalgar – 1805). Nelson actually died at Trafalgar. Another national hero was Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington who managed to defeat Napoleon at Waterloo (near Brussels) in 1815.
j. The industrial development led to protests from blue-collar workers, but the new steam-driven machines nevertheless were adopted in all industrial areas due to their efficiency and working speed. This was in fact the period of the EARLY INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, and one of the causes for its impact was the approval of laws (Acts) by which landowners introduced improved farming methods and machines, forcing many of the farm workers to move to town, where they became the work force that implemented the Industrial Revolution.
k. In 1810 George III was officially proclaimed “unfit to rule” and his son George was appointed Regent (until 1820). He was an extravagant, heavy drinker, women-lover, impulsive ruler but his passion for expensive, finely decorated architecture resulted in remarkable buildings such as the Brighton Pavilion (on the Channel coast). He finally became king in 1820 and ruled until 1830 as GEORGE IV.
l. During his rule the first regular police force was established in London.
m. The Catholic Emancipation Bill of 1829 gave Catholics the right to vote, become members of Parliament and hold public office. The electoral reform was also on its way.
Upon the death of George IV in 1830 his brother became king William IV as the next in line and in 1837 he was followed by Queen Victoria (1837 – 1901) – a time when the British Empire reached its peak.
8. Human rights – Charters of Freedom (USA)
See http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration.html for a detailed presentation of the main documents
The fundamental Acts of the USA are the Declaration of Independence (although not a part of the legal system, it the most important symbol of liberty for all Americans), the Constitution (the supreme law) and the Bill of Rights – all of whom are known as the Charters of Freedom. In fact, the American legal system was originally derived from the system of English law, which was in force in the colonies at the time of the Revolution.[4]
The specificity of US law is that, apart from federal laws (inspired from the Constitution, and which are in force in all 50 states) there is also a system of local laws, applicable in each state only. The 50 American states are considered “separate sovereigns”, which have their own constitutions and have the right to pass their own laws, as seen fit by local authorities.
Various attempts have been made, along the years, to unify these state laws, but with only few positive results. Two examples of uniform laws are the Model Penal Code (a project of the American Law Institute) and the Uniform Commercial Code.
The Declaration of Independence (4th July 1776) was voted “the most influential document in American history” (75.9% during a Government survey which took place in 2002).
The original, faded document (engrossed on parchment) is now exhibited in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom, at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., along with the originals of the Constitution and of the Bill of Rights, in specially sealed encasements, meant to protect them from decay.
There are also a number of 25 official copies on paper known today – of the 200 initially engraved from a stone plate (20 owned by American institutions, 2 by British institutions and 3 by private owners).
The first section of the body of the Declaration gives evidence of the "long train of abuses and usurpations" heaped upon the colonists by King George III. The second section of the body states that the colonists had appealed in vain to their "British brethren" for a redress of their grievances.
The Declaration concludes that "these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved.”
The Constitution of the United States (1787) is the oldest Federal constitution in existence, and it was conceived by the delegates of 12 of the 13 original states. It is the major legal document of the US. It was ratified by all 13 states (including New York) until late 1788, but with promises of several amendments.
Reason for being written: after 11 years of independence, the new state was confronted with economic depression, social unrest and rivalries between different states. In early 1787, the US Congress asked all 13 states to revise the Articles of Confederation. Following a number of secret meetings (regarding some essential issues, such as: how much power to allow the central government, how many representatives in Congress to allow each state, and how these representatives should be elected - directly by the people or by the state legislators), the US Constitution was ready, and it was intended as an entirely new plan of Government: a central Government made of 3 branches (legislative, executive and judicial) which are thus organised as to balance each other.
The Bill of Rights (presented by President George Washington in 1789 and ratified by 9 of the 13 states by the end of 1791) included a number of 12 amendments, of the 17 initially proposed by the Congress. Ten of these were approved, and they were made known to all under the name of Bill of Rights.
The reason for further legal provisions was the fact that anti-federalists had constantly attacked the Constitution as being too vague; they also protested against the fact that it did not make any specific mention regarding the ways in which the state would be protected against tyranny. Civil rights, such as the freedom of speech, the freedom of the press, the freedom of assembly, or the right to a fair and speedy trial had not been included in the original text of the Constitution.
The American Revolution has a number of specific features in comparison with the revolutions which took place in Europe, starting with the end of the 18th century: it was positive in motivation and goals; it did not justify mass killing of the enemy according to ideological reasons (as did the French Revolution of 1789); it opened the way for a modern understanding of human relationships and of the laws governing them; it consecrated the role of a Constitution which should be observed by all; it started from the assumption that “all men are born equal”.
9. Industrial revolution
The beginnings of the industrial revolution are closely linked to Britain under the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901).
It was a time of inventions, reforms and deep social changes. Specific laws were passed with the purpose of implementing political and social reform.
The success of the 1851 World Fair (the first world exhibition of manufactured goods) resulted in Victoria’s reign being called the “Victorian Age”. During her reign, Britain became the greatest colonial power in the world, and statistics estimate that one in four inhabitants of any part of the world was a British subject. Victoria herself was declared Empress of India – a title which remained linked to the British Crown until the emancipation of the Indian sub-continent, followed by the formation of newly-independent states India and Pakistan in the late 1920s.
In the same period, Britain also became the first urban industrial society in history. Urbanization in Britain meant that large numbers of people moved from rural to urban areas due to industrialization (by 1900 80% of the population lived in cities). This deep social change determined an increased importance of the bourgeoisie, at the expense of aristocratic landlords; thus, Britain completed its shift from a feudal system to a modern, industrialized society.
Great inventions paved the way for further modernization: 1825 – the first steam locomotive (made by George Stephenson, who called it a “rocket”). The development of faster transport means (railways) led to an increase of exchanges of goods and of individual consumption.
Britain was also the country which saw the beginnings of the Trade Unions (inspired from the mediaeval guilds) – which were legalized in 1871; by 1890 there were 1.5 M trade union members – a foundation for the modern Labour Party.
A major trend in Victorian Britain was the importance of learning under state guidance: after 1870 education became compulsory for all children.
10. Women’s rights (the Suffragette movement)
It took a long time until women’s working capacities were fully recognised and trusted. The trained English nurses of the Boer War (1899-1902) were those who called everyone’s attention to the fact that women were deprived of many well deserved rights – among which, the right to vote.
Although a formal military nursing service did not exist in the army prior to the latter half of the 19th century, recent extensive research suggests that nursing care was provided to the army during the reign of Elizabeth 1st and the English Civil War. During the 18th century military hospitals had Matrons and nurses working in them but the training and standard of care was not of a high standard.
At the same time, in the US, during the early nineteenth century, women participated in numerous efforts to improve women's status, defend their interests, and increase their rights. Educators, such as Emma Willard, Mary Lyon, and Catharine Beecher, promoted advanced training for women in female academies and seminaries. Thousands of women in the 1830s and 1840s joined moral reform societies, organized especially in protest of women being used for prostitution.
The first women's rights meeting, at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848, capitalized on women's antislavery experience. Called by Mott and Stanton, who had met at an 1840 antislavery convention in London, and some Quaker friends, the convention attracted about three hundred women and men. One-third of the participants signed a "Declaration of Sentiments," modelled on the Declaration of Independence.
In 1919, the US Congress at last approved woman suffrage and in August 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment (women’s right to vote) was ratified by the states.
The word "suffragette" was first used to describe women campaigning for the right to vote in an article in a British newspaper in 1906.
At the time, only two-thirds of the male population could vote.
Those who could not vote included:
- men who did not own property or pay at least £10/year in rent- servants who lived with their employers- criminals- “lunatics” (individuals who were officially deemed crazy)
British women and men had been arguing for both universal and women’s suffrage since the 1860s. The movement for women’s votes accelerated when Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903 – a more radical organization than some of the earlier ones fighting for suffrage. Its slogan was "Deeds Not Words".
On 2 July 1928, a law was passed allowing all women over the age of 21 to vote. Many people said that the Act was passed as a reward for women’s efforts during the war rather than anything the suffragettes did.
[1] See Quinn’s article about the “Glorious Revolution” at http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/quinn.revolution.1688
[2] Ibidem, page 5
[3] Neal, Larry. "How it All Began: the Monetary and Financial Architecture of Europe during the First Global Capital Markets, 1648-1815." Financial History Review 7 (2000): 117-40
[4] For more details about the US law, see Law of the United States, in Wikipedia, the free Encyclopaedia
Indeed, the inhabitants of the British Isles were not the inventors of the monarchy. The term itself comes from old Greek, a language in which mono archon meant “one ruler” (archein = to rule) and defined the ancient type of totalitarian ruler, specific for all ancient cultures. The modern understanding of this term has lost its initial meaning, now referring to the ruler of a country, who passes on the attributes of his/her power to a member of the same family, according to hereditary rules, or by appointment (in less frequent cases – when the Parliament of the respective monarchy decides who should be the next King or Queen). Therefore, most monarchs inherit their title and continue to rule for the rest of their lives.
For the modern person, monarchy is connected to tradition, to a set of somewhat rigid rules which seem to “ignore” the spectacular changes of the modern world. One of them preserves the link (specific mainly for ancient times) between politics and religion: in the European monarchies, for instance, any coronation ceremony is performed by the head of the Church (the Pope, the Archbishop of Canterbury etc.) – thus preserving a long enduring tradition, that of the Roman Empire. In time, and especially in the 16th and 17th centuries, absolute monarchs made great efforts to justify what they considered as their “divine rights” on Earth. Yet, by that time, long fought for rights of nobles and burg citizens alike had concluded with the writing of fundamental documents (constitutions) which limited the monarch’s powers.
When asked about the English monarchy, most people think of William the Conqueror and the mediaeval times. Yet England had had many monarchs before that, during the rule of the Anglo-Saxons. Starting with the 5th century A.D. the Anglo-Saxon kings continued to lead the communities living on that land until 1066, based on a well structured social and political system and a common language which united those communities. Kings were followed on the throne by their eldest son (or daughter) – the system based on cognatic primogeniture, which was preserved throughout the Middle Age and modern times. In other parts of Europe, monarchies followed the rule of the agnatic primogeniture (whereby women were excluded from potential succession – similarly to the Salic law).
The monarchic concept was also exported to various territories which became part of the British colonial Empire. Local rulers became regents (vassals of the British King or Queen) and, though having limited powers due to the presence of British Governors, exerted a totalitarian rule over their own communities.
Today, the British monarchy is one of only ten surviving European monarchies. The role of the monarch has diminished in time, and especially during the 20th century. Queen Elizabeth II, for instance, has limited powers and only a decorative role in the context of British political decisions. Tradition, however, makes her one of the most respected and loved personalities in her country.
2. Political organization (first Parliament)
The political institution of the Parliament originated in England in the Middle Age. But the Anglo-Saxons also had a council of elders whose task was to take the right decisions for the community – the witenagemot [witunúgimot]. In Old English, this means “meeting of counsellors” (witan = counsellors of the Anglo-Saxon King – all of whom belonged to the A-S aristocracy). The Anglo-Saxon witenagemot included representatives of the nobility and religious leaders – the two categories with a major influence in the state. The number of council members varied according to local each king and his decisions; the counsellors had to give their assent in what laws, taxes, defence or negotiations with other princes were concerned. The meetings of the witan were not regular but they took place at any time as chosen by the king for taking decisions in important matters (See http://www.infoplease.com/ for other details).
In the 13th century the kings of Britain gathered the aristocracy and clergy representatives around them under the name of Curia Regis (Royal Court). This gathering laid the foundation for what is now known as the House of Lords. Members of Curia Regis only had executive powers, because all major decisions were taken by the king himself.
In 1265 (during the so-called “Barons’ War”) Simon de Montfort organized a Parliament which included representatives of Anglo-Saxon counties, towns and lesser clergy in an effort to gain the support of middle classes. Thirty years later (1295) Edward I summoned the Model Parliament that included high ranked and lesser clergymen, merchants, two knights from each county, and two representatives from each town in the effort to organize a body that would represent all major social classes, and this type of council remained unchanged for more than 50 years.
However, little by little, the representatives of the clergy withdrew from this Parliament almost completely (only 2 of them were left) but the remaining members gradually built the unitary body that took the name of House of Commons.
By the 15th century the Parliament had lost its administrative and legislative powers, especially due to the fact that the York kings and then the Tudor monarchs were very strong and turned the Parliament into an instrument of their will. However, during the last four centuries, periods of totalitarian rule alternated with times when the Parliament became stronger. The 20th century saw the monarch’s powers reduced to matters of protocol and traditional ritual. Once a year, the monarch speaks in front of the House of Commons (where he/she is only admitted after performing a special ritual – knocking three times on the massive doors) about the state of the nation; the tradition of this speech was established in the 15th century.
3. Major legal documents (Magna Charta 1215)
Also known under the name of “Mother of all Constitutions”, Magna Charta Libertatum, the legal document which acknowledged the rights of English nobles and restricted the totalitarian powers of the king was passed by king John (also known as “Lackland”) in 1215. Since Britain is still a monarchy, Magna Charta is still valid today, not having been replaced by a modern type of constitution. Britain and Israel are the only two countries in the world that do not have a “constitution” (a single representative legal document), but a number of legal documents which, together, stand for such an act.
Magna Carta Libertatum (“The Great Charter of Freedoms”) was issued in 1215, and it is considered the basis for what constitutional British law is today. Historians consider that it largely influenced the US Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Also, it is considered “one of the most important documents in the history of democracy” – Wikipedia).
Reason for being written: disagreements between King John (absolutist monarch, in the tradition of Norman kings) and the English aristocrats (who wanted the king to renounce certain rights and to abide by the law).
Many of its initial clauses were renewed during the late Middle Ages and in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Effects: It limited the power and prerogatives of the King or Queen (but some of these were reinstated during the following centuries).
The Petition of Rights is another key document of the British legal system. It was passed by the English Parliament during Charles I reign (1628).
Reasons for being written: trying unsuccessfully to avoid a civil war, aristocrats aimed to stop arbitrary arrests and imprisonments (“contrary to Magna Carta”), the king’s interference with property rights, the forced loans and the fact that the “habeas corpus” law was not enforced.
Effects: the fact that the King maintained his rights, although he had promised to “look into the abuses”, determined the outburst of the Civil War.
The Bill of Rights (1689) is an act which was passed by the Parliament of England (complete title: An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown) and which, together with Magna Carta, the Act of Settlement and various other Parliament Acts, is considered one of the basic documents of English constitutional law.
The Bill of Rights is also an important part of the legal system of some Commonwealth states (e.g. New Zealand), and a similar document (called the Claim of Right) is applied in Scotland.
Reason for being written: to assert the citizens’ fundamental rights (e.g. the right to petition the Monarch, the right to bear arms for defence) and to define certain obligations of the monarch (e.g. he/she must always ask for the consent of the Parliament for certain actions of the Crown – for instance, in case of war). Unlike the Bill of Rights of the US, this is only a list of rights referring to the people as represented in the Parliament (only Magna Carta sets out individual rights).
Effects: The first 8 amendments to the US Constitution are based on the English Bill of Rights.
The Act of Settlement (1701) was passed by the English Parliament, being an important legal document for the future of the Royalty.
Reason for being written: in order to settle the succession to the throne in favour of Protestant monarchs.
King William III was a widower and had no children, and according to the existing law the line of succession was limited. The main purpose was to allow the succession to continue in the Protestant line, and to exclude any Catholic claims to the throne.
Effects: no Catholic monarchs in England/Britain since that time.
The Acts of Union (1706/1707 with Scotland, 1800/1801 with Ireland)
Reason for being signed: these acts confirmed the union of Scotland and Ireland respectively, to the Kingdom of England, as an effect of political will.
One of the reasons on the part of the English was to establish the Royal succession along Protestant lines. Also, England worried that a Scottish king might make alliances against England.
Effects: through the Act of Union of 1707, a new state – The Kingdom of Great Britain – was created.
The Parliament of England and that of Scotland were dissolved and a new Parliament emerged – the Parliament of Great Britain, based at Westminster.
In the case of the Act of Union with the Irish (passed 1800/ made effective1801) non-Anglicans had no right to become members of the Parliament (around 90% of the Irish population was thus excluded). The newly emerging state took the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
In order to offer larger representational rights to all citizens, in 1829 a Catholic Emancipation Act was passed, allowing Irish Catholics to become members of the Parliament.
4. Break-up with traditional state religion (Henry VIII)
Henry VIII is mostly known for three major reasons: for being an absolute monarch, for breaking away from the dominance of the Pope and Catholicism (thereby setting up a new Christian confession named The Church of England along with the dissolution of all monasteries), as well as for having had six wives (of whom only the last outlived him, the others having had quite dramatic deaths).
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England for an extensive presentation of Henry VIII’s life and actions.
The most important event which took place during his reign is the so-called English Reformation, which led to the replacement of Papal supremacy by the Church of England. Documentary sources present the king’s decision as having been motivated primarily by political reasons (all catholic churches and monasteries were very rich and independent from the English monarch, because their leader was the Pope). Catholic communities were very powerful and Catholic counselors exerted their dominance at the Royal Court as well, putting constant pressure on the king. The riches of said churches and monasteries were also considered as an important source for financing various state projects at Henry’s will. The pretext, however, was a more mundane one – the king seemingly wanting to break his marriage with Catherine of Aragon in order to marry a younger lady, Ann Boleyn (in hope of producing a male heir).
The breech with the Pope in Rome took place in the spring of 1534; a year before that the Pope had excommunicated the rebel king (some documentary sources place this event as late as 1338). The immediate result was England’s religious independence, which inspired other European countries to break away from Rome and Catholicism, by embracing Protestant confessions.
The cultural background was appropriate for such a move. It was the time of Martin Luther and of his claim that the Catholic Church had become heretical and no longer upheld the original teachings of Jesus and the Apostles. It was a time when Catholic priests sold indulgencies – papers by which, in exchange for a sum of money, they granted people’s ascent to Heavens and the forgiveness of all sins – thereby gathering large amounts of money which could not be touched by the civil state.
Henry VIII determined the Parliament to pass a number of acts which neutralized any further action by the Catholic Church on the English territory; he himself was declared “the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England”; anyone who challenged this title risked the death penalty for treason.
Being a monarch who had great faith in his own power and authority, Henry VIII also made certain changes in the type of vocabulary used in the Royal Court. He was the first to use the term “Majesty” (inspired from French) as an alternative for the existing “Royal Highness” or “Grace”. In 1535 he proclaimed himself “Henry VIII, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith, Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in Earth Supreme Head”.
5. Religious persecution as reason for colonization (James I – 1603; Pilgrim Fathers - 1620)
1620 is conventionally known as the starting year for massive immigrations to Northern America. Previously, Sir Walter Raleigh's Roanoke colony arrived in Virginia in 1587 (with 120 colonists, of whom only 17 women). That same year (1587), the first American-English baby was born: her name was Virginia Dare, and she was actually named after the region where the settlement had taken place.
The religious reasons were the main cause for trying to leave England in search of a new life, far away from home:
- Puritan religious beliefs were considered intolerable under James I (a Catholic), who came to the throne of England after the death of Elizabeth I, in 1603
- Marriage was considered a civil affair, not a religious sacrament (to be handled by the state). Marriage was a “contract”, mutually agreed by man and woman, for procreation and avoidance of adultery.
- icons and religious symbols were rejected
- rejection of (Catholic) Church hierarchy
- no celebration for Christmas and Easter (celebrations “invented by man to remember Jesus”); no work on Sundays
The period which started with the symbolic year 1620 and ended with the fight for independence of the 1760s is commonly known as the “Colonial era”. Little by little, the colonists’ settlements grouped into the 13 British colonies which later formed the United States.
They had many things in common: the language (English, although Dutch could still be heard in certain parts of the British-held territory – for instance on the Island of Manhattan), various economic interests (e.g. the East India Company, the first private chartered company whose overseas rights were granted by the British Crown, set up a branch in Boston), the British Monarchy tradition and the acknowledged psychological and social force of a strong nation.
6. The concept of “revolution”
The modern concept of “revolution” seems to have its roots in the so-called “Glorious Revolution” of 1688, during the period when England was ruled by the Stuart family.
The 17th century frictions between the totalitarian kings and the Parliament reached their peak during the Civil War which saw Oliver Cromwell assume the power in the state after beheading king Charles I Stuart in 1649. But Cromwell’s new state only lasted until 1658 when, upon his death, the Parliament decided to invite Charles II to restore the monarchy and become king. From a historical point of view, this was the so-called Restoration.
Unfortunately, after having stayed in exile in France all through the period of Cromwell’s rule, Charles II had also learned the authoritarian ruling methods of Louis XIV (the French king who once said: “L’état c’est moi!”), that he was now ready to apply in England. This led to an even stronger discontent between the new king and the Parliament. Here are some of the issues separating the two powers of the state[1]:
- the King is above the law (Charles II) – vs. the King must abide by the law (Parliament);
- the King favoured Catholicism (under French influence), while the Parliament wished to continue the Protestant tradition
- the King saw France as an ally, while the Parliament saw it as the fiercest enemy
- the King wanted to have complete authority over tax collection and personal expenditures, while the Parliament considered that it should have the final decision in this matter
- the King ignored the judicial system and wanted to be the only one to decide punishments, while the Parliament considered that any impeachment should be made according to the law
Upon Charles’ death, his brother James II ascended to the throne, in spite of the Parliament’s protests, which were mainly religious in nature (he was also a Catholic). When the frictions between the King and the Parliament reached a new climax, members of the Parliament contacted James’s daughter Mary Stuart and her husband, William of Orange (the Dutch prince), proposing them to seize the throne. Eventually James II abdicated in 1689 and William of Orange and his wife started a co-reign on the throne of England.
It was the only time in the history of England when this happened. Usually, the wife or husband of the monarch is called a “consort” (“Prince consort” or “Queen consort”).
Legal consequence: in 1689, the Parliament passed the English Bill of Rights, the Toleration Act, and the Mutiny Act that collectively committed the monarchs to respect Parliament and Parliament's laws.
Financial consequence: the constitutional credibility of the English Parliament determined a renewed trust in the English currency. “The Glorious Revolution unleashed a revolution in public finance. The most prominent element was the introduction of long-run borrowing by the government, because such borrowing absolutely relied on the government's fiscal credibility.”[2]
“Credible government debt formed the basis of the Bank of England in 1694 and the core of the London stock market. The combination of these changes has been called the Financial Revolution and was essential for Britain's emergence as a Great Power in the eighteenth century.”[3]
7. The institution of the “Prime Minister” and his “cabinet”
The house of the Hanoverians included four kings by the name of George, and this is why this period is also known as “Georgian Britain”. It started in 1714 (when George I became a king) and ended in 1820 (when George III died). However, the Hanoverian ruling family produced two more monarchs: William IV and Victoria.
The Georgian period is remembered due to a series of facts that marked the cultural and historical development of Britain – as a country and as an empire:
a. GEORGE I (1714 - 1727) did not speak English so he could not rule properly, therefore he appointed trusted politicians to be responsible for all governing activities. These were the first “Prime Ministers” that Britain had and they grouped around them a number of politicians – the future “Cabinet” – to take care of various parts of the governing effort.
b. Due to irresponsible financial manoeuvring (the national debt in his time reached 31 million pounds) the stock market crashed and the government as well as thousands of investors were declared bankrupt. From 1720s on the Bank of England became officially responsible for the finances of the country and British economy became “the best managed” in Europe over the next centuries.
c. During the reign of GEORGE II (1727 – 1760) Prince Charles Stuart marched into England in an attempt to free Scotland (which had become part of Britain in 1707) and take the crown. He was eventually defeated but became a major Scottish hero, along with Mary Stuart.
d. Social stability was at a high level. The system was focused on protecting the landlords’ interests while the exercise of influence worked in the relationships with the other social layers.
e. The British Museum was founded in 1753, first based on the collections of Sir Hans Sloane and Sir Robert Cotton, to which the earls of Oxford added their personal library. The Royal Library, founded by Henry VII also became a part of the British Museum.
f. A “Seven Years War” with France began during his reign (1755) and ended during the reign of George III (1763). The war resulted in new territories being added to the British Empire (in Canada, Florida, Grenada, Senegal and East of the Mississippi River). The Indian sub-continent also became a territory exclusively administered by the British (France had also had interests there). The East India Company became the most important trade company in the area, bringing all kinds of products to Britain.
g. GEORGE III (1760 – 1820) was insane and often proved unfit to rule. During his reign the American colonies broke with the British rule and became independent after the Revolution (1775-1783).
h. Also during his reign Ireland was officially unified with Great Britain (1801), which turned Great Britain into the United Kingdom.
i. Horatio Nelson became a national hero after the naval victories over Napoleon (the Battle of the Nile – 1798 and Trafalgar – 1805). Nelson actually died at Trafalgar. Another national hero was Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington who managed to defeat Napoleon at Waterloo (near Brussels) in 1815.
j. The industrial development led to protests from blue-collar workers, but the new steam-driven machines nevertheless were adopted in all industrial areas due to their efficiency and working speed. This was in fact the period of the EARLY INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, and one of the causes for its impact was the approval of laws (Acts) by which landowners introduced improved farming methods and machines, forcing many of the farm workers to move to town, where they became the work force that implemented the Industrial Revolution.
k. In 1810 George III was officially proclaimed “unfit to rule” and his son George was appointed Regent (until 1820). He was an extravagant, heavy drinker, women-lover, impulsive ruler but his passion for expensive, finely decorated architecture resulted in remarkable buildings such as the Brighton Pavilion (on the Channel coast). He finally became king in 1820 and ruled until 1830 as GEORGE IV.
l. During his rule the first regular police force was established in London.
m. The Catholic Emancipation Bill of 1829 gave Catholics the right to vote, become members of Parliament and hold public office. The electoral reform was also on its way.
Upon the death of George IV in 1830 his brother became king William IV as the next in line and in 1837 he was followed by Queen Victoria (1837 – 1901) – a time when the British Empire reached its peak.
8. Human rights – Charters of Freedom (USA)
See http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration.html for a detailed presentation of the main documents
The fundamental Acts of the USA are the Declaration of Independence (although not a part of the legal system, it the most important symbol of liberty for all Americans), the Constitution (the supreme law) and the Bill of Rights – all of whom are known as the Charters of Freedom. In fact, the American legal system was originally derived from the system of English law, which was in force in the colonies at the time of the Revolution.[4]
The specificity of US law is that, apart from federal laws (inspired from the Constitution, and which are in force in all 50 states) there is also a system of local laws, applicable in each state only. The 50 American states are considered “separate sovereigns”, which have their own constitutions and have the right to pass their own laws, as seen fit by local authorities.
Various attempts have been made, along the years, to unify these state laws, but with only few positive results. Two examples of uniform laws are the Model Penal Code (a project of the American Law Institute) and the Uniform Commercial Code.
The Declaration of Independence (4th July 1776) was voted “the most influential document in American history” (75.9% during a Government survey which took place in 2002).
The original, faded document (engrossed on parchment) is now exhibited in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom, at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., along with the originals of the Constitution and of the Bill of Rights, in specially sealed encasements, meant to protect them from decay.
There are also a number of 25 official copies on paper known today – of the 200 initially engraved from a stone plate (20 owned by American institutions, 2 by British institutions and 3 by private owners).
The first section of the body of the Declaration gives evidence of the "long train of abuses and usurpations" heaped upon the colonists by King George III. The second section of the body states that the colonists had appealed in vain to their "British brethren" for a redress of their grievances.
The Declaration concludes that "these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved.”
The Constitution of the United States (1787) is the oldest Federal constitution in existence, and it was conceived by the delegates of 12 of the 13 original states. It is the major legal document of the US. It was ratified by all 13 states (including New York) until late 1788, but with promises of several amendments.
Reason for being written: after 11 years of independence, the new state was confronted with economic depression, social unrest and rivalries between different states. In early 1787, the US Congress asked all 13 states to revise the Articles of Confederation. Following a number of secret meetings (regarding some essential issues, such as: how much power to allow the central government, how many representatives in Congress to allow each state, and how these representatives should be elected - directly by the people or by the state legislators), the US Constitution was ready, and it was intended as an entirely new plan of Government: a central Government made of 3 branches (legislative, executive and judicial) which are thus organised as to balance each other.
The Bill of Rights (presented by President George Washington in 1789 and ratified by 9 of the 13 states by the end of 1791) included a number of 12 amendments, of the 17 initially proposed by the Congress. Ten of these were approved, and they were made known to all under the name of Bill of Rights.
The reason for further legal provisions was the fact that anti-federalists had constantly attacked the Constitution as being too vague; they also protested against the fact that it did not make any specific mention regarding the ways in which the state would be protected against tyranny. Civil rights, such as the freedom of speech, the freedom of the press, the freedom of assembly, or the right to a fair and speedy trial had not been included in the original text of the Constitution.
The American Revolution has a number of specific features in comparison with the revolutions which took place in Europe, starting with the end of the 18th century: it was positive in motivation and goals; it did not justify mass killing of the enemy according to ideological reasons (as did the French Revolution of 1789); it opened the way for a modern understanding of human relationships and of the laws governing them; it consecrated the role of a Constitution which should be observed by all; it started from the assumption that “all men are born equal”.
9. Industrial revolution
The beginnings of the industrial revolution are closely linked to Britain under the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901).
It was a time of inventions, reforms and deep social changes. Specific laws were passed with the purpose of implementing political and social reform.
The success of the 1851 World Fair (the first world exhibition of manufactured goods) resulted in Victoria’s reign being called the “Victorian Age”. During her reign, Britain became the greatest colonial power in the world, and statistics estimate that one in four inhabitants of any part of the world was a British subject. Victoria herself was declared Empress of India – a title which remained linked to the British Crown until the emancipation of the Indian sub-continent, followed by the formation of newly-independent states India and Pakistan in the late 1920s.
In the same period, Britain also became the first urban industrial society in history. Urbanization in Britain meant that large numbers of people moved from rural to urban areas due to industrialization (by 1900 80% of the population lived in cities). This deep social change determined an increased importance of the bourgeoisie, at the expense of aristocratic landlords; thus, Britain completed its shift from a feudal system to a modern, industrialized society.
Great inventions paved the way for further modernization: 1825 – the first steam locomotive (made by George Stephenson, who called it a “rocket”). The development of faster transport means (railways) led to an increase of exchanges of goods and of individual consumption.
Britain was also the country which saw the beginnings of the Trade Unions (inspired from the mediaeval guilds) – which were legalized in 1871; by 1890 there were 1.5 M trade union members – a foundation for the modern Labour Party.
A major trend in Victorian Britain was the importance of learning under state guidance: after 1870 education became compulsory for all children.
10. Women’s rights (the Suffragette movement)
It took a long time until women’s working capacities were fully recognised and trusted. The trained English nurses of the Boer War (1899-1902) were those who called everyone’s attention to the fact that women were deprived of many well deserved rights – among which, the right to vote.
Although a formal military nursing service did not exist in the army prior to the latter half of the 19th century, recent extensive research suggests that nursing care was provided to the army during the reign of Elizabeth 1st and the English Civil War. During the 18th century military hospitals had Matrons and nurses working in them but the training and standard of care was not of a high standard.
At the same time, in the US, during the early nineteenth century, women participated in numerous efforts to improve women's status, defend their interests, and increase their rights. Educators, such as Emma Willard, Mary Lyon, and Catharine Beecher, promoted advanced training for women in female academies and seminaries. Thousands of women in the 1830s and 1840s joined moral reform societies, organized especially in protest of women being used for prostitution.
The first women's rights meeting, at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848, capitalized on women's antislavery experience. Called by Mott and Stanton, who had met at an 1840 antislavery convention in London, and some Quaker friends, the convention attracted about three hundred women and men. One-third of the participants signed a "Declaration of Sentiments," modelled on the Declaration of Independence.
In 1919, the US Congress at last approved woman suffrage and in August 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment (women’s right to vote) was ratified by the states.
The word "suffragette" was first used to describe women campaigning for the right to vote in an article in a British newspaper in 1906.
At the time, only two-thirds of the male population could vote.
Those who could not vote included:
- men who did not own property or pay at least £10/year in rent- servants who lived with their employers- criminals- “lunatics” (individuals who were officially deemed crazy)
British women and men had been arguing for both universal and women’s suffrage since the 1860s. The movement for women’s votes accelerated when Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903 – a more radical organization than some of the earlier ones fighting for suffrage. Its slogan was "Deeds Not Words".
On 2 July 1928, a law was passed allowing all women over the age of 21 to vote. Many people said that the Act was passed as a reward for women’s efforts during the war rather than anything the suffragettes did.
[1] See Quinn’s article about the “Glorious Revolution” at http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/quinn.revolution.1688
[2] Ibidem, page 5
[3] Neal, Larry. "How it All Began: the Monetary and Financial Architecture of Europe during the First Global Capital Markets, 1648-1815." Financial History Review 7 (2000): 117-40
[4] For more details about the US law, see Law of the United States, in Wikipedia, the free Encyclopaedia
vineri, 18 ianuarie 2008
Preston- churchmen’s residence, celebrations’s town
· Introduction
I’ve chosen Preston because it’s not an average town that you hear talking about every day as many others in UK: London, Liverpool, Manchester. It’s an unheard of, a hidden one, but, in my opinion, non of the less important. In fact, Preston takes a great pride in its people and celebrates its cultural diversity with an all year round events programme.
For example, the unique Easter Egg Rolling event, which many may consider excentric, but gives Preston a certain charm.Other examples: the colourful Caribbean Carnival and the Preston Mela, Festival of South Asian Culture.
· Short description
Located on the River Ribble, like an young child, Preston is a new town, receiving the status of a city in 2002, becoming England's 50th city in the 50th year of Queen Elizabeth II's reign, therefore it’s importancy.
Besides this, Preston has a strong Christian (particularly Catholic) history and tradition. The word Preston derived from 'Priests town' and the Lamb on the city emblem is a Biblical image of Jesus Christ. It’s certainly true that we can not find any other city with a Biblical image of Jesus Christ as its emblem which hosts so many celebrations, events and has a such vibrante night life.
· History
Preston in times past
Preston was a borough, market-town and parish situated to the north of the river Ribble; and is said to have risen from the ruins of an ancient city, called Ribchester (which is now an inconsiderable village in the neighbourhood), and to take its name, Priest-town,being the residence of considerable numbers of churchmen.
During the history, Preston’s architecture changed considerably.
Firstly, Preston was established as a port at the head of the estuary of the River Ribble. It became important from Roman times as a river crossing and rich from the weaving of wool in the Middle Ages.
John Horrocks established the first cotton mill in Preston in 1786. The first railway in the town was built in 1803 to connect the southern and northern sections of the Lancaster Canal. This was followed by a short railway between the quarries of Longridge to Preston.
Preston had been first represented in Parliament in 1295. Unlike most boroughs, the right to vote in parliamentary elections had been granted to all inhabitants of the town.
Preston continued to develop and in 1838 the National Union Railway linked Preston to London, Liverpool and Manchester. These lines were eventually obtained by the Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway. This increased economic activity and between 1801 and 1901, the population of Preston increased from 14,000 to 115,000.
Secondly, a specific characteristic is the Guild Merchant. Every 20th year a guild merchant, or kind of jubilee, is held here, which begins in the last week of August, and formerly continued a month. The right to hold a Guild Merchant was conferred upon the Burgesses of Preston by a charter of 1179. Such a celebration had been held from time to time, but at the one in 1328 it was decreed that the Guild should be held every twenty years. There were breaks in this pattern for various reasons, but an unbroken series of them were held from 1542 to 1922. The 400 year sequence was broken due to World War II, but resumed in 1952. Therefore the expression '(Once) every Preston Guild', meaning 'very infrequently', has passed into fairly common use, especially in Lancashire.
The guild-hall, a handsome building, built of brick, stands in the centre of the town, near the Market-place, and fronts Fishergate, containing a news-room and council-chamber, together with the court-room for trying causes cognizable in the town, and used as the husting for the purpose of receiving votes for electing members of parliament; the new cupola is built of freestone, and is a superior piece of architecture, surmounting a pedestal, which supports its massy head, consisting of four Ionic pilasters at each angle; upon the base, between the pilasters, are laticed windows, formed with mouldings, after the Norman style, with round heads; and above this, next the cornice, a clock appears, with four dials facing the four cardinal points; the cap of the cupola is mounted by a vane of gilt-work, representing the figure of a lamb couchant.
On another hand, there is an astonishing diversity of public structures. The public structures devoted to the purposes of religious worship are, the ancient church of St. Johns (formerly St.Wilfrids), which is a vicarage, in the patronage of Sir Henry Philip Hoghton, and incumbency of the Rev. Roger Carus Wilson; St. Georges chapel, the present minister of which is the Rev. R. Harris; Trinity church, in the incumbency of the Rev. Thomas Raven; St. Peters, the Rev. R. Henry; and St. Pauls, the Rev. B. Russell. There are several societies in Preston for promoting religion, and affording relief to the poor both in age and sickness; amongst these may be included Bible, tract, and missionary societies; dispensaries, alms-houses, a benevolent society; several provident institutions or benefit societies.
The charitable institutions for the promotion of education are, the free grammar-school, an ancient foundation, under the patronage of the corporation; the blue-coat school, national school, catholic school, methodist school, and various Sunday-schools; the latter excellent establishments educating upwards of 3,000 children.
· Preston Today
From a town which promoted religion, with such a representative name („Priest-town”) today it became the administrative, commercial, industrial and cultural centre of Lancashire; there is also a wide range of educational and leisure opportunities and facilities. The University of Central Lancashire based in the centre of Preston is now an important feature of the town with over 15,000 students and now probably the biggest employer in the town.
The town has a wonderful collection of art and sculptures housed in the magnificent Harris Museum & Art Gallery building of Greek Revival architecture.
There is a large selection of restaurants with international cuisine, pubs, clubs, entertainment venues and night-life. There is the towns entertainment centre, the Guild Hall & Charter Theatre which is home to major events, concerts and theatre productions. There are two multi-screen cinemas, leisure centres, golf clubs, museums, Preston North End football club, Preston Grasshoppers Rugby football club and many more attractions, so there is always something of interest for folk day or night.
· Industrial Revolution
Half a century ago Preston could not be noted as a manufacturing town, and for ages previous it was more remarkable for the residence of independent persons, and its claims to gentility, than to the production of articles deemed so essentially necessary to adorn the rich and clothe all ranks. The rapid strides of science and art, rendered subservient to machinery and manufactures in general, have of late years overtaken and included Preston amongst the manufacturing towns of Lancashire: the cotton-trade is now carried on to a very considerable extent; and although it labours under the disadvantage of being at a material distance from the coal-mines, yet the central situation of the town, and the united advantages of river and canal navigation, joining with the skill, capital and enterprize of the principal manufactuers, have placed Preston in a more conspicuous and elevated point of view, than at the period when trade was only carried on within it for local convenience. With the aid of spring tides, which flow higher than the bridge at Wolton, vessels of 150 tons burden can navigate the Ribble as far as the quay at Preston-marsh; but this river is capable of much improvement. In the Ribble is a very ancient fishery, belonging to the borough of Preston, within the boundary of its jurisdiction; and it is famous for salmon, smelts, plaice and eels.
The principal market-place is a spacious well paved square, in the centre of which is an obelisk, surmounted by a large glass vase, lighted at night with gas, which illuminates the whole area. The chief market is held on Saturday; but there are also markets on Wednesday and Friday, for fish, butter and vegetables.
However, the 19th century saw a transformation in Preston from a small market town to a much larger industrial one, as the innovations of the latter half of the previous century such as Richard Arkwright's water frame (invented in Preston) brought cotton mills to many northern English towns. With industrialisation came examples of both oppression and enlightenment.
The town's forward-looking spirit is typified by it being the first English town outside London to be lit by gas. The Preston Gas Company was established in 1815 by, amongst others, a Catholic priest: Fr. Joseph "Daddy" Dunn of the Society of Jesus.
The more oppressive side of industrialisation was seen on Saturday 13 August 1842, when a group of cotton workers demonstrated against the poor conditions in the town's mills. The Riot Act was read and armed troops corralled the demonstrators in front of the Corn Exchange on Lune Street. Shots were fired and four of the demonstrators were killed. A commemorative sculpture now stands on the spot (although the soldiers and demonstrators represented are facing the wrong way). In the 1850s, Karl Marx visited Preston and later described the town as "the next St. Petersburg".
Preston was one of only a few industrial towns in Lancashire to have a functioning corporation (local council) in 1835, its charter dating to 1685, and was reformed as a municipal borough by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. It became a county borough under the Local Government Act 1888. In 1974, county boroughs were abolished, and it became the larger part of the new non-metropolitan district of Preston in Lancashire, also including Fulwood, Lancashire and part of Preston Rural District.
· Notable people from Preston
To proove it’s interest for culture and importance of the education, Preston gave many notable people to the world.
Heres’s a list with some of the most famous names in Preston’s history:
· Richard Arkwright (1732–1792) — inventor of the water frame that kick-started the textile industry in the late 18th century
· Professor Sir George Grenfell Baines, OBE (1908–2003) — Architect, pioneer of multi-disciplinary design and founder of the Building Design Partnership
· Kenny Baker (born 1934) — an actor who plays R2D2 in Star Wars.
· Roy Barraclough (born 1935) — Actor from Coronation Street
· Stephen Barton (born 1982) — Noted film composer and protege of Harry Gregson-Williams
· Eddie Calvert (1922–1978) — Trumpeter, "The Man With the Golden Horn"
· Gregory Doran (born 1958) — Associate Director, Royal Shakespeare Company.
· John Doyle (born 1979) Flugel Horn for the world Famous Black Dyke band, and widely regarded as the finest Flugel Horn Player in the world.
· Aaron Dore (born 1991) Proud Professional Signature & LP Designer, Tutorial & PSD Packs Creator Known Web-Wide.
· Paul Englishby — film and theater composer
· Sir Tom Finney (born 1922) — Footballer
· Andrew Flintoff (born 1977) — cricketer
· Zara Glover (born 1982) — International Ten-pin Bowler
· James Hebblethwaite (1857–1921) — poet
· John Inman (1935–2007) — Comedy actor and drag artiste
· Ian Kirkham — saxophone player, Simply Red.
· Mark Lawrenson (born 1957) — Footballer turned football pundit
· Joseph Livesey (1794–1884) — Social reformer and pioneer of the Temperance movement in the 19th century
· Ian McCulloch (born 1971) — snooker player currently in the top 16 of the world rankings
· Marie Niven (b.1964) famous mainly for being a famous maths teacher at Hutton Grammar School.
· Nick Park (born 1958) — animator famous mainly for the Wallace and Gromit and Chicken Run claymation animation classics.
· Edith Rigby (1872–1948) — Suffragette
· Samuel Ryder (1858–1936) — founder of the Ryder Cup Golf Competition
· Dr Alison Shaw, Ph.D. (born 1975) — publisher of "A general approach for heterologous membrane protein expression in Escherichia coli: the uncoupling protein, UCP1, as an example", aka "the hedgehog protein one" ([1])
· Chris Scott (born 1991) Keyboard player with Odd Socks, Lancaster based fourth wave Ska band.
· A.J.P. Taylor (1906–1990) — historian.
· Jessica Taylor (born 1980) singer with Liberty X
· Francis Thompson (1859–1907) — poet
· John Thomson (born 1969) — actor, Men Behaving Badly
· Stanley Yates (born 1958) — classical guitarist and music scholar
· Buildings and structures in PrestonCulturally, Preston has much to be proud about including - the Grade I listed Harris Museum and Art Gallery, Preston Guild Hall, Museum of Lancashire, the County Records Office and Library, splendid Victorian Parks & Gardens, as well as the National Football Museum and St Walburge's Church.
St Walburge's Church is a Roman Catholic church located in Preston, Lancashire, England. It is dedicated to Saint Walpurga and is a Grade I listed building.
It is one of the tallest buildings of any type in Lancashire, with a steeple or spire of 309 feet (94 m). It is the fifth-tallest church in the United Kingdom, after Salisbury Cathedral, St Paul's Cathedral, Liverpool Cathedral and Norwich Cathedral, and therefore the tallest church that is not a cathedral.
The steeple is constructed from limestone sleepers which originally carried the nearby Preston to Longridge railway line, giving the spire a red tint during sunset. The steeple was the last to be worked upon by steeplejack and TV personality Fred Dibnah.
The architect was Joseph Hansom. Work began on the construction of the church in May 1850, and it was completed for an opening ceremony on August 3, 1854.
The church resembles a cathedral and holds a commanding position over Preston city. The tower contains a single bell of 30 Cwt (1.5 Tonnes) cast by Mears and Stainbank of Whitechapel. This is thought to be the heaviest swinging bell in Lancashire.
The Harris Museum, Art Gallery & Preston Free Public Library is a Grade I listed museum building in Preston and has the largest gallery space in Lancashire, England. The collections include important local history and archaeology collections, highlights of which are displayed in the Story of Preston, which gives a historical account of the city. There is also a fine art collection including work by Stanley Spencer, Lucian Freud, Ivon Hitchens and Graham Sutherland and a decorative art collection that holds the largest scent bottle collection in the country. In addition there is a varied contemporary art programme of national and international artists, touring shows and in-house exhibitions.
Amongst the fine works of art and historical artefacts there is a nationally important prehistoric elk skeleton, known as the Poulton Elk.
A Foucault pendulum hangs in the central foyer, through all the floors, over a butterfly-shaped plate marked with the hours of the day. As a result of the rotation of the Earth, this functions as a decorative and reasonably-accurate clock.
This monumental building also houses Preston City's Free Public Library, which is run by Lancashire County Council, and the building was initially built with funds donated by Edmund Robert Harris.
· Conclusion: Preston's history dates back to the Doomsday Book and to 1179 with the granting of the Charter, which gave the right to hold a Guild Merchant every 20 years. The "Once in a Preston Guild" tradition continues to this day and we look forward to the next in 2012. Preston, the administrative capital of Lancashire, is the largest and most important commercial centre in the county.
Preston's colourful history has shaped today's town.The future in the town of Preston is looking very good because of its transport system and its shopping centres.
I’ve chosen Preston because it’s not an average town that you hear talking about every day as many others in UK: London, Liverpool, Manchester. It’s an unheard of, a hidden one, but, in my opinion, non of the less important. In fact, Preston takes a great pride in its people and celebrates its cultural diversity with an all year round events programme.
For example, the unique Easter Egg Rolling event, which many may consider excentric, but gives Preston a certain charm.Other examples: the colourful Caribbean Carnival and the Preston Mela, Festival of South Asian Culture.
· Short description
Located on the River Ribble, like an young child, Preston is a new town, receiving the status of a city in 2002, becoming England's 50th city in the 50th year of Queen Elizabeth II's reign, therefore it’s importancy.
Besides this, Preston has a strong Christian (particularly Catholic) history and tradition. The word Preston derived from 'Priests town' and the Lamb on the city emblem is a Biblical image of Jesus Christ. It’s certainly true that we can not find any other city with a Biblical image of Jesus Christ as its emblem which hosts so many celebrations, events and has a such vibrante night life.
· History
Preston in times past
Preston was a borough, market-town and parish situated to the north of the river Ribble; and is said to have risen from the ruins of an ancient city, called Ribchester (which is now an inconsiderable village in the neighbourhood), and to take its name, Priest-town,being the residence of considerable numbers of churchmen.
During the history, Preston’s architecture changed considerably.
Firstly, Preston was established as a port at the head of the estuary of the River Ribble. It became important from Roman times as a river crossing and rich from the weaving of wool in the Middle Ages.
John Horrocks established the first cotton mill in Preston in 1786. The first railway in the town was built in 1803 to connect the southern and northern sections of the Lancaster Canal. This was followed by a short railway between the quarries of Longridge to Preston.
Preston had been first represented in Parliament in 1295. Unlike most boroughs, the right to vote in parliamentary elections had been granted to all inhabitants of the town.
Preston continued to develop and in 1838 the National Union Railway linked Preston to London, Liverpool and Manchester. These lines were eventually obtained by the Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway. This increased economic activity and between 1801 and 1901, the population of Preston increased from 14,000 to 115,000.
Secondly, a specific characteristic is the Guild Merchant. Every 20th year a guild merchant, or kind of jubilee, is held here, which begins in the last week of August, and formerly continued a month. The right to hold a Guild Merchant was conferred upon the Burgesses of Preston by a charter of 1179. Such a celebration had been held from time to time, but at the one in 1328 it was decreed that the Guild should be held every twenty years. There were breaks in this pattern for various reasons, but an unbroken series of them were held from 1542 to 1922. The 400 year sequence was broken due to World War II, but resumed in 1952. Therefore the expression '(Once) every Preston Guild', meaning 'very infrequently', has passed into fairly common use, especially in Lancashire.
The guild-hall, a handsome building, built of brick, stands in the centre of the town, near the Market-place, and fronts Fishergate, containing a news-room and council-chamber, together with the court-room for trying causes cognizable in the town, and used as the husting for the purpose of receiving votes for electing members of parliament; the new cupola is built of freestone, and is a superior piece of architecture, surmounting a pedestal, which supports its massy head, consisting of four Ionic pilasters at each angle; upon the base, between the pilasters, are laticed windows, formed with mouldings, after the Norman style, with round heads; and above this, next the cornice, a clock appears, with four dials facing the four cardinal points; the cap of the cupola is mounted by a vane of gilt-work, representing the figure of a lamb couchant.
On another hand, there is an astonishing diversity of public structures. The public structures devoted to the purposes of religious worship are, the ancient church of St. Johns (formerly St.Wilfrids), which is a vicarage, in the patronage of Sir Henry Philip Hoghton, and incumbency of the Rev. Roger Carus Wilson; St. Georges chapel, the present minister of which is the Rev. R. Harris; Trinity church, in the incumbency of the Rev. Thomas Raven; St. Peters, the Rev. R. Henry; and St. Pauls, the Rev. B. Russell. There are several societies in Preston for promoting religion, and affording relief to the poor both in age and sickness; amongst these may be included Bible, tract, and missionary societies; dispensaries, alms-houses, a benevolent society; several provident institutions or benefit societies.
The charitable institutions for the promotion of education are, the free grammar-school, an ancient foundation, under the patronage of the corporation; the blue-coat school, national school, catholic school, methodist school, and various Sunday-schools; the latter excellent establishments educating upwards of 3,000 children.
· Preston Today
From a town which promoted religion, with such a representative name („Priest-town”) today it became the administrative, commercial, industrial and cultural centre of Lancashire; there is also a wide range of educational and leisure opportunities and facilities. The University of Central Lancashire based in the centre of Preston is now an important feature of the town with over 15,000 students and now probably the biggest employer in the town.
The town has a wonderful collection of art and sculptures housed in the magnificent Harris Museum & Art Gallery building of Greek Revival architecture.
There is a large selection of restaurants with international cuisine, pubs, clubs, entertainment venues and night-life. There is the towns entertainment centre, the Guild Hall & Charter Theatre which is home to major events, concerts and theatre productions. There are two multi-screen cinemas, leisure centres, golf clubs, museums, Preston North End football club, Preston Grasshoppers Rugby football club and many more attractions, so there is always something of interest for folk day or night.
· Industrial Revolution
Half a century ago Preston could not be noted as a manufacturing town, and for ages previous it was more remarkable for the residence of independent persons, and its claims to gentility, than to the production of articles deemed so essentially necessary to adorn the rich and clothe all ranks. The rapid strides of science and art, rendered subservient to machinery and manufactures in general, have of late years overtaken and included Preston amongst the manufacturing towns of Lancashire: the cotton-trade is now carried on to a very considerable extent; and although it labours under the disadvantage of being at a material distance from the coal-mines, yet the central situation of the town, and the united advantages of river and canal navigation, joining with the skill, capital and enterprize of the principal manufactuers, have placed Preston in a more conspicuous and elevated point of view, than at the period when trade was only carried on within it for local convenience. With the aid of spring tides, which flow higher than the bridge at Wolton, vessels of 150 tons burden can navigate the Ribble as far as the quay at Preston-marsh; but this river is capable of much improvement. In the Ribble is a very ancient fishery, belonging to the borough of Preston, within the boundary of its jurisdiction; and it is famous for salmon, smelts, plaice and eels.
The principal market-place is a spacious well paved square, in the centre of which is an obelisk, surmounted by a large glass vase, lighted at night with gas, which illuminates the whole area. The chief market is held on Saturday; but there are also markets on Wednesday and Friday, for fish, butter and vegetables.
However, the 19th century saw a transformation in Preston from a small market town to a much larger industrial one, as the innovations of the latter half of the previous century such as Richard Arkwright's water frame (invented in Preston) brought cotton mills to many northern English towns. With industrialisation came examples of both oppression and enlightenment.
The town's forward-looking spirit is typified by it being the first English town outside London to be lit by gas. The Preston Gas Company was established in 1815 by, amongst others, a Catholic priest: Fr. Joseph "Daddy" Dunn of the Society of Jesus.
The more oppressive side of industrialisation was seen on Saturday 13 August 1842, when a group of cotton workers demonstrated against the poor conditions in the town's mills. The Riot Act was read and armed troops corralled the demonstrators in front of the Corn Exchange on Lune Street. Shots were fired and four of the demonstrators were killed. A commemorative sculpture now stands on the spot (although the soldiers and demonstrators represented are facing the wrong way). In the 1850s, Karl Marx visited Preston and later described the town as "the next St. Petersburg".
Preston was one of only a few industrial towns in Lancashire to have a functioning corporation (local council) in 1835, its charter dating to 1685, and was reformed as a municipal borough by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. It became a county borough under the Local Government Act 1888. In 1974, county boroughs were abolished, and it became the larger part of the new non-metropolitan district of Preston in Lancashire, also including Fulwood, Lancashire and part of Preston Rural District.
· Notable people from Preston
To proove it’s interest for culture and importance of the education, Preston gave many notable people to the world.
Heres’s a list with some of the most famous names in Preston’s history:
· Richard Arkwright (1732–1792) — inventor of the water frame that kick-started the textile industry in the late 18th century
· Professor Sir George Grenfell Baines, OBE (1908–2003) — Architect, pioneer of multi-disciplinary design and founder of the Building Design Partnership
· Kenny Baker (born 1934) — an actor who plays R2D2 in Star Wars.
· Roy Barraclough (born 1935) — Actor from Coronation Street
· Stephen Barton (born 1982) — Noted film composer and protege of Harry Gregson-Williams
· Eddie Calvert (1922–1978) — Trumpeter, "The Man With the Golden Horn"
· Gregory Doran (born 1958) — Associate Director, Royal Shakespeare Company.
· John Doyle (born 1979) Flugel Horn for the world Famous Black Dyke band, and widely regarded as the finest Flugel Horn Player in the world.
· Aaron Dore (born 1991) Proud Professional Signature & LP Designer, Tutorial & PSD Packs Creator Known Web-Wide.
· Paul Englishby — film and theater composer
· Sir Tom Finney (born 1922) — Footballer
· Andrew Flintoff (born 1977) — cricketer
· Zara Glover (born 1982) — International Ten-pin Bowler
· James Hebblethwaite (1857–1921) — poet
· John Inman (1935–2007) — Comedy actor and drag artiste
· Ian Kirkham — saxophone player, Simply Red.
· Mark Lawrenson (born 1957) — Footballer turned football pundit
· Joseph Livesey (1794–1884) — Social reformer and pioneer of the Temperance movement in the 19th century
· Ian McCulloch (born 1971) — snooker player currently in the top 16 of the world rankings
· Marie Niven (b.1964) famous mainly for being a famous maths teacher at Hutton Grammar School.
· Nick Park (born 1958) — animator famous mainly for the Wallace and Gromit and Chicken Run claymation animation classics.
· Edith Rigby (1872–1948) — Suffragette
· Samuel Ryder (1858–1936) — founder of the Ryder Cup Golf Competition
· Dr Alison Shaw, Ph.D. (born 1975) — publisher of "A general approach for heterologous membrane protein expression in Escherichia coli: the uncoupling protein, UCP1, as an example", aka "the hedgehog protein one" ([1])
· Chris Scott (born 1991) Keyboard player with Odd Socks, Lancaster based fourth wave Ska band.
· A.J.P. Taylor (1906–1990) — historian.
· Jessica Taylor (born 1980) singer with Liberty X
· Francis Thompson (1859–1907) — poet
· John Thomson (born 1969) — actor, Men Behaving Badly
· Stanley Yates (born 1958) — classical guitarist and music scholar
· Buildings and structures in PrestonCulturally, Preston has much to be proud about including - the Grade I listed Harris Museum and Art Gallery, Preston Guild Hall, Museum of Lancashire, the County Records Office and Library, splendid Victorian Parks & Gardens, as well as the National Football Museum and St Walburge's Church.
St Walburge's Church is a Roman Catholic church located in Preston, Lancashire, England. It is dedicated to Saint Walpurga and is a Grade I listed building.
It is one of the tallest buildings of any type in Lancashire, with a steeple or spire of 309 feet (94 m). It is the fifth-tallest church in the United Kingdom, after Salisbury Cathedral, St Paul's Cathedral, Liverpool Cathedral and Norwich Cathedral, and therefore the tallest church that is not a cathedral.
The steeple is constructed from limestone sleepers which originally carried the nearby Preston to Longridge railway line, giving the spire a red tint during sunset. The steeple was the last to be worked upon by steeplejack and TV personality Fred Dibnah.
The architect was Joseph Hansom. Work began on the construction of the church in May 1850, and it was completed for an opening ceremony on August 3, 1854.
The church resembles a cathedral and holds a commanding position over Preston city. The tower contains a single bell of 30 Cwt (1.5 Tonnes) cast by Mears and Stainbank of Whitechapel. This is thought to be the heaviest swinging bell in Lancashire.
The Harris Museum, Art Gallery & Preston Free Public Library is a Grade I listed museum building in Preston and has the largest gallery space in Lancashire, England. The collections include important local history and archaeology collections, highlights of which are displayed in the Story of Preston, which gives a historical account of the city. There is also a fine art collection including work by Stanley Spencer, Lucian Freud, Ivon Hitchens and Graham Sutherland and a decorative art collection that holds the largest scent bottle collection in the country. In addition there is a varied contemporary art programme of national and international artists, touring shows and in-house exhibitions.
Amongst the fine works of art and historical artefacts there is a nationally important prehistoric elk skeleton, known as the Poulton Elk.
A Foucault pendulum hangs in the central foyer, through all the floors, over a butterfly-shaped plate marked with the hours of the day. As a result of the rotation of the Earth, this functions as a decorative and reasonably-accurate clock.
This monumental building also houses Preston City's Free Public Library, which is run by Lancashire County Council, and the building was initially built with funds donated by Edmund Robert Harris.
· Conclusion: Preston's history dates back to the Doomsday Book and to 1179 with the granting of the Charter, which gave the right to hold a Guild Merchant every 20 years. The "Once in a Preston Guild" tradition continues to this day and we look forward to the next in 2012. Preston, the administrative capital of Lancashire, is the largest and most important commercial centre in the county.
Preston's colourful history has shaped today's town.The future in the town of Preston is looking very good because of its transport system and its shopping centres.
miercuri, 2 ianuarie 2008
British legends notes
King Arthur
New Arrivals. As the Roman hold on
The Anglo-Saxons. These Germanic tribes are the "Anglo-Saxons" to whom we owe much of our tradition, language, and physical heritage. They poured in upon the Romanized Celts of England much as the Normans would do to them in later times, pushing the inhabitants of the island back into the hills of Wales and Cornwall, creating pockets of Celtic culture and language.
At first the British inhabitants fell back to the heights of the old Iron Age hill forts. There is evidence that many forts were reoccupied in the late 5th century. Gradually, however, even this struggle proved in vain, and the Germanic invaders settled throughout much of south, east, and northeast
The Roman warrior. It is during this push for settlement that the next and greatest British hero was born, the legendary King Arthur. Was King Arthur real? Not in the sense of the wonderful medieval romances popularized by Thomas Malory. There were no knights in shining armour searching for the Holy Grail in Arthur's company. In all likelihood there was no Round Table or Sword in the Stone. What there was instead was a very brave warrior, who may not even have been named Arthur, leading the remnants of romanised British resistance against a steady onslaught of foreign pagan invaders.
Conflicting claims. In researching this material I found definitively that Arthur was Welsh, Celtic, or Breton. That he fought the Saxons in the north, in the south, or in
The real Arthur (maybe). It seems that there was a war leader, whose name we do not know, who defeated the Saxons, checking their advance temporarily. In later years people remembered this leader with longing; "Oh, if we only had ... to lead us now". Eventually the name Arthur adhered to this folk memory, and his list of accomplishments grew. Arthur is in many ways greater because we do not know the truth.
The real Arthur may have been a man named Ambrosius Aurelianus, or perhaps his war leader, who defeated the Saxons in a major battle we know as Mount Badon, (which may possibly be South Cadbury, in Somerset) halting their advance for as long as forty years. In the end, however, the superior might and numbers of the Saxons and their allies were too much for the islanders, and Arthur's efforts became little more than a historical footnote. A terrifically romantic and exciting footnote though, for Arthur and his deeds were woven like a silk thread into the fabric of myth and legend in which Celtic storytellers delight.
Legends of Glastonbury
There are two main streams of legend that surround
Joseph of Arimathea
Joseph was the Biblical figure who took Jesus' body after the crucifixion. According to some legends he was actually Jesus' uncle, and had visited
At any rate, when Jesus died, Joseph thought it prudent to flee
When Joseph came to
Joseph was said to have established the first church in England at Glastonbury, and archaeological records show that there may well have been an extremely early Christian church here. What happened to the Holy Grail? Some legends have it that Joseph buried the Grail at the foot of Glastonbury Tor, whereupon a spring of blood gushed forth from the ground. There is a well at the base of the Tor, Chalice Well, and the water that issues from it does indeed have a reddish tinge to it, from the iron content of the water.
Other legends have it that the Holy Grail was interred with Joseph when he died, in a secret grave. The search for the mysterious Grail emerges again and again in the tales of
King Arthur and Glastonbury
The association of Arthur and Glastonbury goes back at least to the early Middle Ages. In the late 12th century the monks of
Glastonbury Tor, the enigmatic conical hill that rises above
One final myth of Arthur at
London
Alfred, Lord Tennyson was the first English writer to be awarded an hereditary title for his work. Author of many poems of great beauty and deep thought, an early supporter of women’s rights and grown from humble beginnings, as one of eleven children of a clergyman, he became
This is the man whose writings launched the modern myth movement that surrounds the legendary 5th/6th century King Arthur, his court at Camelot, Guinevere, Merlin the Magician, Sir Lancelot and the other Knights of the Round Table, and the quest for the Holy Grail - to mention just a few aspects - that are at the heart of today’s worldwide Arthurian industry. The study of the Arthurian legends brings together scholars, academics, romantics, realists, writers, educationalists, New-Agers, publishers, researchers and many others, in a whirlpool of theories, symbols, disputed facts, speculation, conjecture, individual interpretation and on-going investigation.
Tennyson’s epic story about King Arthur and Camelot was the beautifully written Idylls of the King.
The first of these 12 Arthurian poems was published in 1859. Tennyson’s poetic development of the legends that sprang from the Celtic origins of Camelot - believed by some to have been located at Caerleon-on-Usk, in what is now South Wales, or as proposed by Sir Thomas Malory, in his 15th century literary work"Le Morte d’Arthur", in Winchester, Hampshire - was not well received by some mid-19th century critics. But the Idylls proved enormously popular with the public and have been the source of great interest and study ever since.
It’s not surprising that many mythical connections with the Arthurian legends are encountered throughout southern
It is interesting to note that one of the locally recorded 17th century references to the location traces its ownership back to the family of medieval knight Sir Geoffrey de Mandeville, Earl of Essex, stories of whom abound in the area and whose ghost has been seen to appear in the neighbourhood on several occasions over past centuries.
In 1190 when the monks of Glastonbury claimed to have discovered the bodies of both King Arthur and Queen Guinevere, they produced as proof of the bodies’ identification a leaden cross inscribed "Here lies buried the renowned King Arthur with Guinevere his second wife, in the Isle of Avalon." Many years later, in the18th century, this cross disappeared.
The December 17th, 1981 edition of the Enfield Advertiser newspaper carried a report that an inscribed lead cross, bearing the name of King Arthur and described as "possibly a long lost amulet from the tomb of King Arthur", had been found in the grounds of Forty Hall, Enfield, just three miles from Camlet Moat. The discovery went on to receive major media attention from the Press and television in
About the author
Michael James Young is a London, England-based writer/photographer with a special interest in travel, leisure, and recreation- tel. 020 8449 8263 / fax 020 8440 8315) - email: michael.j.young@btinternet.com - Feb 22 2001
Article © 2001 Michael J. Young
Robin Hood
The "facts ", at least one romantic version of them, are these. In the time of Richard the Lionhearted a minor noble of Nottinghamshire, one Robin of Loxley, was outlawed for poaching deer. Now at that time the deer in a a royal forest belonged to the king, and killing one of the king's deer was therefore treason, and punishable by death.
So Robin took to the greenwood of
Someone, or maybe several someones, named Robin Hood existed at different times. Court records of the
One thing to note about the early legends is that Robin Hood was not an aristocrat, as he was later portrayed, but a simple yeoman driven to a life of crime by the harsh rule of the law of the rich. As such, it is easy to see how his story soon became a favourite folk tale among the poor.
There is, in the grounds of Kirklees Priory, a old grave stone, marking the final resting place of one "Robard Hude". Proof that part of the tale may be true? It would be nice to think so.
Resources
For a thorough examination of the Robin Hood legend, spend some time at these fascinating web sites:
Robin Hood Ltd
Robin Hood -- Bold Outlaw of Barnsdale and Sherwood
The Robin Hood Project
The Mabinogion
The Mabinogion is not one myth but a collection of stories gleaned from the traditions of Welsh bards and storytellers over many centuries. They were passed from one bard to another until anonymously collated in the 12th century. Later versions were written down in the White Book of Rhydderch (now in the Welsh National Library) and the Red Book of Hergest (now preserved at
The Mabonogi (the name means alternately "a story for children" or "a bard's tale" depending on whose translation you prefer) are comprised of 4 branches, entitled "Pwyll", "Branwen", Manawydan", and "Math". Aside from these four branches there are another 8 individual tales in the British and French style. Taken together, these tales of heroes and stirring deeds depict a Celtic vision of enchantment and romance that moves effortlessly between the physical landscape of
In some of the later stories King Arthur appears, though certainly not in the guise of the chivalrous knight known to modern readers. He is a giant, whose deeds involve ridding
Here are some short summaries of several popular tales of the Mabinogion.
"Olwen of the White Track"
Olwen was the daughter of Hawthorn, king of the race of giants. She was so beautiful that any who beheld her were filled with love. Wherever this maiden stepped, four white trefoils grew, which is reflected in her name - Olwen meaning "she of the White Track".
The hero Eilhwch decides that he will find and wed this beautiful maiden, despite the warning that no one ever returned from such a quest alive. In order to win his love, Eilhwch is set a series of heroic (read impossible) tasks by Olwen's father. [Note the similarity to the Hercules myth - that hero was also set twelve seemingly impossible tasks to perform, which he proceeded to do].
Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed, took a fancy one day to sit on a mound at Narberth (
Pwyll decided to pursue her himself, but again, no matter how fast he rode, he was unable to catch up to her. Finally, he called out to her, telling her that he loved her. Instantly she stopped, declaring with some humour that "it were better for the horse" that he called out sooner. The Lady Rhiannon said that her family was forcing her to marry someone against her wishes, but now she would have Pwyll or no-one. Sure enough, after many more adventures they were wed.
Branwen and the Invasion of Ireland
Bran, the King of
The Irish held their peace, but when they had treturned to
A note: Bran's castle is reputed to be at Harlech (not the much later
Maxen Wledig, Emperor of
Maxen Wledig had a dream in which he beheld a beautiful maiden who sat upon a golden throne. When he awoke he sent his servants out far and wide, and eventually they found the maiden in
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