The Union Flag, or Union Jack, is the national flag of the United Kingdom and it is so called because it embodies the emblems of the three countries united under one Sovereign - the kingdoms of England and Wales, of Scotland and of Ireland (although since 1921 only Northern Ireland has been part of the United Kingdom). The term Union Jack possibly dates from Queen Anne's time (reigned 1702-14), but its origin is uncertain. It may come from the 'jack-et' of the English or Scottish soldiers; or from the name of James I who originated the first union in 1603, in either its Latin or French form Jacobus or Jacques; or, as 'jack' once meant small, the name may be derived from a royal proclamation issued by Charles II that the Union Flag should be flown only by ships of the Royal Navy as a jack, (a small flag at the bowsprit). The flag consists of three heraldic crosses: The cross of St George, patron saint of England since the 1270's, is a red cross on a white ground. It was the national flag of England until James I succeeded to the throne in 1603, after which it was combined in 1606 with the crosses of St. Andrew and St. Patrick; The cross saltire of St Andrew, patron saint of Scotland, is a diagonal white cross on a blue ground.
The cross saltire of St Patrick, patron saint of Ireland, is a diagonal red cross on a white ground. This was combined with the previous Union Flag of St George and St Andrew, after the Act of Union of Ireland with England (and Wales) and Scotland on 1 January 1801, to create the Union Flag that has been flown ever since.
The Welsh dragon does not appear on the Union Flag. This is because when the first Union Flag was created in 1606, the Principality of Wales by that time was already united with England and was no longer a separate principality.
The Union Flag was originally a royal flag (when the present design was made official in 1801, it was ordered to be flown on all the King's forts and castles, but not elsewhere); it is today flown above Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle and Sandringham when the Queen is not in residence. The Royal Arms of Scotland (“Lion Rampant”) is flown at the Palace of Holyroodhouse and Balmoral when The Queen is not in residence. On news of a Royal death, the Union Flag (or the Royal Arms of Scotland [Lion Rampant] where appropriate) will be flown at half-mast. The Royal Standard is never flown at half mast, as the Sovereign never dies (the new Monarch immediately succeeds his or her predecessor).
The flying of the Union Flag on public buildings is decided by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport at the Queen's command.
The Union Flag has particular significance to the Armed Forces; therefore it is flied during the annual Trooping the Colour ceremony at Horse Guards Parade on the Sovereign's official birthday, when The Queen as Colonel-in-Chief of each of the five regiments of Foot Guards takes the salute.
The flag is also flown on St David's Day (Wales), St George's Day (England), St Andrew's Day (Scotland), and St Patrick's Day (Northern Ireland)
In the Royal Navy, flags and ensigns assumed the same importance as standards and colours in the Army. Until 1864, fleets were organised into White, Red and Blue squadrons, but in that year Queen Victoria ordered that the White Ensign - the red cross of St George with the Union Flag in the top left-hand corner - should be carried by all ships of the Royal Navy.
The Union Flag is flown on government buildings on days marking the birthdays of members of the Royal family, Commonwealth Day, Coronation Day, as well as on the Queen's official birthday.
miercuri, 23 ianuarie 2008
ANGLO-SAXON TRADITIONS
DAYS OF THE WEEK:
In English, all the names for the days of the week come from the Anglo-Saxon tradition (of Germanic inspiration), while the names of the months are derived from Latin (dating back to the Roman conquest).
THE BEGINNING OF A DAY:
In some cultures, the beginning of a new day was considered to be at sunset. The sacred Jewish year and the Christian eve of feast-days were equally important. Old expressions related to “a week” (“se’en-night”- archaic, no longer used) and “two weeks” (“fort’night”) in the Anglo-Saxon culture (ancient Britons) speak of the “night”. The ancient Greek, the Mohammedans, the Chinese also start the day at sunset.
In other cultures (Syrians, Persians, Modern Greek) the day begins at sunrise.
Ancient Egyptians considered that each day began at noon (because they were worshippers of the Sun God Ra). Modern astronomers kept this tradition.
The day began at midnight for the Romans. In modern times, the English, French, Dutch, Germans, Spaniards, Portuguese and Americans also consider midnight as the beginning of the day.
SUNDAY – was considered the first day of the week. In Old English it was called Sunnerdaeg, and it was dedicated to the Sun god.
MONDAY – the second day of the week (“day of the Moon” or Monandaeg in Anglo-Saxon)
Monday was observed as a non-working day by various guilds (shoemakers etc.). St. Monday or St. Lundi is the facetious (mocking) name given to it by others
TUESDAY – comes from the name of Tiu (or Tiw, or Tyr) who, in Scandinavian mythology, was the son of Odin and brother of Thor. In Roman mythology he can be identified with Mars, the god of war (whereby the name of this day in French is “mardi”). Etymologists consider that Tiu can be equated with the Greek major god Zeus (in Latin = Deus; in Sanskrit = devas)
WEDNESDAY – the fourth day of the week was originally “Woden’s Day” (or “Odin’s Day”), called by the French “mercredi” because they equal it to the day of god Mercury.
The Persians regard this as a “red-letter day” (= a lucky day, usually a festival took place – Christian priests adopted this writing for the calendar) because the Moon was created in the fourth day as written in the book of Genesis
THURSDAY – was the day of the god Thor (called by the French “jeudi” after Jove = Jupiter, who was also a god of the thunder, just like Thor). In the old times, Thursday was also called “Thunderday”.
FRIDAY – was the sixth day of the week. In ancient Rome it was called dies Veneris (the day dedicated to Venus) and this was the etymology of “vendredi” in French. The nearest equivalent to Venus among the Northern goddesses was Frigg (or Freyja). The form in Old English was “frige dag”. Freyja was the wife of Odin, goddess of love, marriage and of the dead and she always wore a necklace called Brisingamen. When Odin left her she cried with golden tears.
The Norsemen considered Friday as the luckiest day in the week and that is why it was the best day for weddings and other celebrations. With Christian religion, things changed because Friday was the day when Christ was crucified.
For Mohammedans, Friday is the equivalent of Sabbath (because they say Adam was created on a Friday and, also on a Friday, Adam and Eve ate the forbidden apple; they also died on a Friday).
Buddhists and Brahmins consider it unlucky.
In England, there is a saying according to which “A Friday moon brings foul weather”, but it is not unlucky to be born on a Friday, because “Friday’s child is loving and giving”.
It is considered unlucky for ships to put to sea on a Friday (however, this is what Columbus did in 1492 … and he discovered America!)
In mediaeval times, condemned criminals were executed on Fridays so it was also called “Hanging day”.
Friday 13th – is particularly unlucky. Originally, it is said to come from an old Scandinavian tradition – at a banquet in Walhalla, Loki intruded, he was the 13th guest and then Balder (son of Odin, god of Light) was killed.
Paraskevi-dekatria-phobia = the irrational fear of Friday the 13th (from Greek)
SATURDAY – was the seventh day of the week. In Old Anglo-Saxon it was called Saeterdaeg, adapted from the Latin Saturni dies (the day dedicated to the worship of Saturn). There was also a festival (Saturnalia) that lasted for 7 days, starting with the 19th of December – a time of freedom from any restraint, no business took place, law courts were suspended, schools were closed, no criminals were punished. The character of the “fool” /“buffoon” seems to have inspired the Romans’ ill-treatment (“Passions”) of Jesus on Crucifixion day.
SPECIFIC EXPRESSIONS – IDIOMS:
A week of Sundays – meaning a long time, an indefinite period
Week-work – this goes back to the feudalist period, when a lord’s land was worked by tenants (usually 3 days a week compulsory work) (serfdom).
He has had his day – meaning that his youth days are over
Today a man, tomorrow a mouse – meaning that one day you can have it all, then the next day you can lose all you have
To lose the day – to lose a battle, to be defeated (from the mediaeval times, but today it is still used metaphorically)
To win / gain the day – it is its opposite, meaning that you have been successful
Daylight Saving – the idea of changing the official time during summer seems to have been put forward by Benjamin Franklin after the American States won their independence. But the idea was finally adopted only in 1916 in Germany, closely followed by England because of wartime restrictions. In Britain it became permanent by an Act of 1925 when it received the name of Summer Time. It began the 3rd Saturday in April (unless that was the Easter Day) and ended on the day following the first Saturday in October. Since 1961 it has been extended by 6 weeks (beginning in March and ending in October).
To let daylight into someone – to pierce a person with a sword or bullet
Dayspring (poetical) – the dawn
De die in diem – from day to day continuously, until the business is completed
The-swing-it-till-Monday-basket – the nickname for things that can be postponed until Monday
When three Thursdays come together – never
Not in a Month of Sundays – never
A Sunday Saint – someone who strictly observes all religious ordinances only on Sundays
MONTHS OF THE YEAR:
JANUARY – it was the month dedicated by Romans to the god Janus (the god who kept the gate of Heaven – the guardian of gates and doors) who presided the entrance into the year and, having two faces, could look both forward and backward in time. The doors of temples dedicated to Janus were open during war and closed in times of peace.
The Dutch called this month “Lauwmaand” (=frosty-month).
The Saxons called it Wulf-monath, because wolves were very dangerous at that time of the year due to the fact that food was generally very scarce. After the introduction of Christianity, this month was given the name of Se aeftera geola (“The after-yule”, meaning after Christmas) or Forma monath (=the first month).
After the French Revolutions, the French called this first month Nivôse (= the snow-month) and it started on 21/22/23 December, lasting until 20/21/22 January.
[YULE (in Old English “gēol”) came from the Icelandish “jǒl” which was the name for a heathen festival at the winter solstice.]
FEBRUARY – was the month of purification for the ancient Romans (Februo = I purify by sacrifice = catharsis). Hence, the 2nd of Feb. is the day of Purification of the Blessed Virgin.
The Anglo-Saxons called this month “Sprout-kale” from the sprouting of kale (=cabbage). The French revolutionaries called it “Pluviôse” (rainy month).
In Scotland, tradition has it that February “borrowed” 3 days from January (12-13-14). If these are stormy, the rest of the year will have good weather; if they are fine, the rest will be marked by bad weather.
MARCH – the name comes from the Roman god of war Mars. The Old Dutch called it “Lentmaand” (and this is where the term LENT comes from, since March is always in Lent).
The Saxons called it Hreth-monath / Hlyd-monath (=the rough month, because there were always cold winds in this month). The French Republicans called it Ventôse (=windy) and it lasted between 20 February – 20 March.
Anglo-Saxon tradition has it that the last 3 days in March were “borrowed days” (from the month of April). There is even a proverb that says “March borrows 3 days of April, and they are ill!” (=cold, rainy, windy).
APRIL – was the “opening month” (from Latin “aprire”), because trees unfold, all nature opens with new life. The French Revolutionaries called it “Germinal” (time of budding) – 21 March – 19 April.
April fool (Poisson d’avril in French; Gowk in Scots, meaning cuckoo). 25 March used to be the New Year’s Day, festivities usually lasted for 8 days so April 1st was the culminating point in the celebrations, as well as their ending point. The term possibly comes from Roman tradition (Cerealia, a celebration held at the beginning of April. Proserpina was taken by god Pluto into the underworld and her mother Ceres, goddess of cereals, heard her screams and tried to find her, but her search was “a fool’s errand” – in vain).
MAY – The Anglo-Saxons called this month Thrimilce (because cows could be milked three times a day). The modern name seems to come from Latin (Maia being the goddess of growth and increase – from multus-maior-maximus).
In Dutch it was called Bloumaand (the month of blossoms).
The French Revolutionaries called it Floréal (the time of flowers) – 20 April – 20 May.
Mayday – the first of May – a time for heathen celebrations – electing a May Queen, dancing around a Maypole, lighting bonfires (nature worship).
Very tall, ugly women are sometimes called “maypoles”.
JUNE – is the sixth month of the year. It took its name from the Roman “Junius” the term describing young people. It could also come from Juno, queen of heaven, sister and wife of Jupiter.
The Old Dutch called it Zomer-maand (=summer-month). The Anglo-Saxons called it Sere-monath (=dry-month) and Lida aerra (=joy-time).
The French Revolutionaries called it Prairial (prairie = plain, meadow) – 20 May – 18 June.
Marriages in June are said to be very lucky (old Roman superstition related to the June calends, as Juno was the protector of women from birth to death).
JULY – is the 7th month. It was named “Iulius” by Marc Anthony in honour of Julius Caesar. It was formerly called Quintilis (the 5th). Until the 18th century it was pronounced [dzúli].
The Old Dutch called it Hooy-maand (=hay-month). The Old Saxons called it Maedd-Monath (the cattle were brought into the meadows to feed) or Lida aeftevr (the second mild or genial month).
The French Revolutionaries called it Messidor (harvest month) – June 19 – July 18.
AUGUST – Initially called Sextilis (the 6th month from March when the year began) it was renamed by Octavius Augustus in honour of himself (he lived between 63 BC – 14 AD and renamed this month in 8 AD) when he became the first Roman emperor. This was “his lucky month”.
Its old Dutch name was Oostmaand (= harvest month). The old Saxons called it Weodmonath (“weed-month” but weed referred to vegetation in general). The French called it Thermidor (=hot month) – 19 July – 17 August.
SEPTEMBER – was the 7th month of the Roman year that started in March. The Old Dutch called it Herst-maand (meaning the “autumn month) while the old Saxons called it Gerst-monath (barley month) or Haefest-monath. When Christianity became official religion on the main island, they changed the name into Halig-monath (=Holy month, because it included the Nativity of the Virgin Mary on the 8th, the Holy Cross day on the 14th and St. Michael’s day on the 29th).
The French republicans called it Fructidor (the fruit-month) – 18 August – 16 September.
OCTOBER – was the 8th month of the ancient Roman calendar. The Old Dutch called it Wynmaand and in Old English the equivalent was Winmonath (wine-month, or the time of the vintage). It also bore the name of Winter-fylleth (winter full moon). The French revolutionaries called it Vendémiaire (also “time of vintage) – 22 September – 21 October.
NOVEMBER – was the 9th month in the Roman calendar. The Old Dutch name was Slaght-maand (=slaughter-month) because cattle were slain and salted down for winter time. The Old Saxon name was Wind-monath (wind-month) and it was the time when fishermen brought their boats ashore until the next spring. The Saxons also called it Blot-monath (=blood month), an equivalent of the Ditch name.
The French republicans called it Brumaire (fog-month) – 23 October – 21 November.
DECEMBER – was the 10th month in the initial Roman calendar. It was the time of the Saturnalia.
Bibliography:
Etymological dictionaries
The Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, 1994 edition, Wordsworth Reference books
In English, all the names for the days of the week come from the Anglo-Saxon tradition (of Germanic inspiration), while the names of the months are derived from Latin (dating back to the Roman conquest).
THE BEGINNING OF A DAY:
In some cultures, the beginning of a new day was considered to be at sunset. The sacred Jewish year and the Christian eve of feast-days were equally important. Old expressions related to “a week” (“se’en-night”- archaic, no longer used) and “two weeks” (“fort’night”) in the Anglo-Saxon culture (ancient Britons) speak of the “night”. The ancient Greek, the Mohammedans, the Chinese also start the day at sunset.
In other cultures (Syrians, Persians, Modern Greek) the day begins at sunrise.
Ancient Egyptians considered that each day began at noon (because they were worshippers of the Sun God Ra). Modern astronomers kept this tradition.
The day began at midnight for the Romans. In modern times, the English, French, Dutch, Germans, Spaniards, Portuguese and Americans also consider midnight as the beginning of the day.
SUNDAY – was considered the first day of the week. In Old English it was called Sunnerdaeg, and it was dedicated to the Sun god.
MONDAY – the second day of the week (“day of the Moon” or Monandaeg in Anglo-Saxon)
Monday was observed as a non-working day by various guilds (shoemakers etc.). St. Monday or St. Lundi is the facetious (mocking) name given to it by others
TUESDAY – comes from the name of Tiu (or Tiw, or Tyr) who, in Scandinavian mythology, was the son of Odin and brother of Thor. In Roman mythology he can be identified with Mars, the god of war (whereby the name of this day in French is “mardi”). Etymologists consider that Tiu can be equated with the Greek major god Zeus (in Latin = Deus; in Sanskrit = devas)
WEDNESDAY – the fourth day of the week was originally “Woden’s Day” (or “Odin’s Day”), called by the French “mercredi” because they equal it to the day of god Mercury.
The Persians regard this as a “red-letter day” (= a lucky day, usually a festival took place – Christian priests adopted this writing for the calendar) because the Moon was created in the fourth day as written in the book of Genesis
THURSDAY – was the day of the god Thor (called by the French “jeudi” after Jove = Jupiter, who was also a god of the thunder, just like Thor). In the old times, Thursday was also called “Thunderday”.
FRIDAY – was the sixth day of the week. In ancient Rome it was called dies Veneris (the day dedicated to Venus) and this was the etymology of “vendredi” in French. The nearest equivalent to Venus among the Northern goddesses was Frigg (or Freyja). The form in Old English was “frige dag”. Freyja was the wife of Odin, goddess of love, marriage and of the dead and she always wore a necklace called Brisingamen. When Odin left her she cried with golden tears.
The Norsemen considered Friday as the luckiest day in the week and that is why it was the best day for weddings and other celebrations. With Christian religion, things changed because Friday was the day when Christ was crucified.
For Mohammedans, Friday is the equivalent of Sabbath (because they say Adam was created on a Friday and, also on a Friday, Adam and Eve ate the forbidden apple; they also died on a Friday).
Buddhists and Brahmins consider it unlucky.
In England, there is a saying according to which “A Friday moon brings foul weather”, but it is not unlucky to be born on a Friday, because “Friday’s child is loving and giving”.
It is considered unlucky for ships to put to sea on a Friday (however, this is what Columbus did in 1492 … and he discovered America!)
In mediaeval times, condemned criminals were executed on Fridays so it was also called “Hanging day”.
Friday 13th – is particularly unlucky. Originally, it is said to come from an old Scandinavian tradition – at a banquet in Walhalla, Loki intruded, he was the 13th guest and then Balder (son of Odin, god of Light) was killed.
Paraskevi-dekatria-phobia = the irrational fear of Friday the 13th (from Greek)
SATURDAY – was the seventh day of the week. In Old Anglo-Saxon it was called Saeterdaeg, adapted from the Latin Saturni dies (the day dedicated to the worship of Saturn). There was also a festival (Saturnalia) that lasted for 7 days, starting with the 19th of December – a time of freedom from any restraint, no business took place, law courts were suspended, schools were closed, no criminals were punished. The character of the “fool” /“buffoon” seems to have inspired the Romans’ ill-treatment (“Passions”) of Jesus on Crucifixion day.
SPECIFIC EXPRESSIONS – IDIOMS:
A week of Sundays – meaning a long time, an indefinite period
Week-work – this goes back to the feudalist period, when a lord’s land was worked by tenants (usually 3 days a week compulsory work) (serfdom).
He has had his day – meaning that his youth days are over
Today a man, tomorrow a mouse – meaning that one day you can have it all, then the next day you can lose all you have
To lose the day – to lose a battle, to be defeated (from the mediaeval times, but today it is still used metaphorically)
To win / gain the day – it is its opposite, meaning that you have been successful
Daylight Saving – the idea of changing the official time during summer seems to have been put forward by Benjamin Franklin after the American States won their independence. But the idea was finally adopted only in 1916 in Germany, closely followed by England because of wartime restrictions. In Britain it became permanent by an Act of 1925 when it received the name of Summer Time. It began the 3rd Saturday in April (unless that was the Easter Day) and ended on the day following the first Saturday in October. Since 1961 it has been extended by 6 weeks (beginning in March and ending in October).
To let daylight into someone – to pierce a person with a sword or bullet
Dayspring (poetical) – the dawn
De die in diem – from day to day continuously, until the business is completed
The-swing-it-till-Monday-basket – the nickname for things that can be postponed until Monday
When three Thursdays come together – never
Not in a Month of Sundays – never
A Sunday Saint – someone who strictly observes all religious ordinances only on Sundays
MONTHS OF THE YEAR:
JANUARY – it was the month dedicated by Romans to the god Janus (the god who kept the gate of Heaven – the guardian of gates and doors) who presided the entrance into the year and, having two faces, could look both forward and backward in time. The doors of temples dedicated to Janus were open during war and closed in times of peace.
The Dutch called this month “Lauwmaand” (=frosty-month).
The Saxons called it Wulf-monath, because wolves were very dangerous at that time of the year due to the fact that food was generally very scarce. After the introduction of Christianity, this month was given the name of Se aeftera geola (“The after-yule”, meaning after Christmas) or Forma monath (=the first month).
After the French Revolutions, the French called this first month Nivôse (= the snow-month) and it started on 21/22/23 December, lasting until 20/21/22 January.
[YULE (in Old English “gēol”) came from the Icelandish “jǒl” which was the name for a heathen festival at the winter solstice.]
FEBRUARY – was the month of purification for the ancient Romans (Februo = I purify by sacrifice = catharsis). Hence, the 2nd of Feb. is the day of Purification of the Blessed Virgin.
The Anglo-Saxons called this month “Sprout-kale” from the sprouting of kale (=cabbage). The French revolutionaries called it “Pluviôse” (rainy month).
In Scotland, tradition has it that February “borrowed” 3 days from January (12-13-14). If these are stormy, the rest of the year will have good weather; if they are fine, the rest will be marked by bad weather.
MARCH – the name comes from the Roman god of war Mars. The Old Dutch called it “Lentmaand” (and this is where the term LENT comes from, since March is always in Lent).
The Saxons called it Hreth-monath / Hlyd-monath (=the rough month, because there were always cold winds in this month). The French Republicans called it Ventôse (=windy) and it lasted between 20 February – 20 March.
Anglo-Saxon tradition has it that the last 3 days in March were “borrowed days” (from the month of April). There is even a proverb that says “March borrows 3 days of April, and they are ill!” (=cold, rainy, windy).
APRIL – was the “opening month” (from Latin “aprire”), because trees unfold, all nature opens with new life. The French Revolutionaries called it “Germinal” (time of budding) – 21 March – 19 April.
April fool (Poisson d’avril in French; Gowk in Scots, meaning cuckoo). 25 March used to be the New Year’s Day, festivities usually lasted for 8 days so April 1st was the culminating point in the celebrations, as well as their ending point. The term possibly comes from Roman tradition (Cerealia, a celebration held at the beginning of April. Proserpina was taken by god Pluto into the underworld and her mother Ceres, goddess of cereals, heard her screams and tried to find her, but her search was “a fool’s errand” – in vain).
MAY – The Anglo-Saxons called this month Thrimilce (because cows could be milked three times a day). The modern name seems to come from Latin (Maia being the goddess of growth and increase – from multus-maior-maximus).
In Dutch it was called Bloumaand (the month of blossoms).
The French Revolutionaries called it Floréal (the time of flowers) – 20 April – 20 May.
Mayday – the first of May – a time for heathen celebrations – electing a May Queen, dancing around a Maypole, lighting bonfires (nature worship).
Very tall, ugly women are sometimes called “maypoles”.
JUNE – is the sixth month of the year. It took its name from the Roman “Junius” the term describing young people. It could also come from Juno, queen of heaven, sister and wife of Jupiter.
The Old Dutch called it Zomer-maand (=summer-month). The Anglo-Saxons called it Sere-monath (=dry-month) and Lida aerra (=joy-time).
The French Revolutionaries called it Prairial (prairie = plain, meadow) – 20 May – 18 June.
Marriages in June are said to be very lucky (old Roman superstition related to the June calends, as Juno was the protector of women from birth to death).
JULY – is the 7th month. It was named “Iulius” by Marc Anthony in honour of Julius Caesar. It was formerly called Quintilis (the 5th). Until the 18th century it was pronounced [dzúli].
The Old Dutch called it Hooy-maand (=hay-month). The Old Saxons called it Maedd-Monath (the cattle were brought into the meadows to feed) or Lida aeftevr (the second mild or genial month).
The French Revolutionaries called it Messidor (harvest month) – June 19 – July 18.
AUGUST – Initially called Sextilis (the 6th month from March when the year began) it was renamed by Octavius Augustus in honour of himself (he lived between 63 BC – 14 AD and renamed this month in 8 AD) when he became the first Roman emperor. This was “his lucky month”.
Its old Dutch name was Oostmaand (= harvest month). The old Saxons called it Weodmonath (“weed-month” but weed referred to vegetation in general). The French called it Thermidor (=hot month) – 19 July – 17 August.
SEPTEMBER – was the 7th month of the Roman year that started in March. The Old Dutch called it Herst-maand (meaning the “autumn month) while the old Saxons called it Gerst-monath (barley month) or Haefest-monath. When Christianity became official religion on the main island, they changed the name into Halig-monath (=Holy month, because it included the Nativity of the Virgin Mary on the 8th, the Holy Cross day on the 14th and St. Michael’s day on the 29th).
The French republicans called it Fructidor (the fruit-month) – 18 August – 16 September.
OCTOBER – was the 8th month of the ancient Roman calendar. The Old Dutch called it Wynmaand and in Old English the equivalent was Winmonath (wine-month, or the time of the vintage). It also bore the name of Winter-fylleth (winter full moon). The French revolutionaries called it Vendémiaire (also “time of vintage) – 22 September – 21 October.
NOVEMBER – was the 9th month in the Roman calendar. The Old Dutch name was Slaght-maand (=slaughter-month) because cattle were slain and salted down for winter time. The Old Saxon name was Wind-monath (wind-month) and it was the time when fishermen brought their boats ashore until the next spring. The Saxons also called it Blot-monath (=blood month), an equivalent of the Ditch name.
The French republicans called it Brumaire (fog-month) – 23 October – 21 November.
DECEMBER – was the 10th month in the initial Roman calendar. It was the time of the Saturnalia.
Bibliography:
Etymological dictionaries
The Wordsworth Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, 1994 edition, Wordsworth Reference books
marți, 22 ianuarie 2008
Prieteni falsi franceza/engleza
False friends/Faux amis
A.
Abandon vs Abandon
Abandon is a noun that means abandonment, desertion, neglect, or giving up. It can also mean abandon, especially with a verb: danser avec abandon - to dance with abandon. Abandonner = to abandon.
Abandon = abandon.
Habileté vs Ability
Habileté refers to a skill, cleverness, a talent, or a skillful move.
Ability is a similar but weaker term, translatable by une aptitude, une capacité, or une compétence.
Abus vs Abuse
Abus can mean abuse, excess, or injustice.
Abuse = abus, while verbal abuse is des injures or insultes.
Abuser vs Abuse
Abuser means to exploit, abuse, take advantage of, deceive, or mislead. S'abuser means to be mistaken or to delude oneself.
Abuse can be translated by abuser, injurier, insulter, or maltraiter.
Accéder vs Accede
Accéder means to reach, attain, get to, access.
Accede has three different meanings. (1) to agree/accept: agréer, accepter. (2) to take on a new position: entrer en possession/fonction. (3) to join: adhérer, se joindre.
Accidenté vs Accidental
Accidenté can be an adjective: hilly, undulating, or damaged - or a noun: casualty, injured person. Accidenter means to injure or damage.
Accidental means accidentel (bad) or fortuit (good).
Achèvement vs Achievement
Achèvement refers to the completion or culmination of something.
Achievement has a more positive sense of attaining something that was sought after: exploit, réussite, accomplissement.
Achever vs Achieve
Achever usually means to finish, end, complete, reach. It can also be more figurative: to finish off, destroy, kill.
Achieve = accomplir, réaliser, atteindre.
Acompte vs Account
Acompte refers to a deposit, down payment, or installment.
Account = un compte.
Action vs Action
Action can mean action as well as act or a share of stock.
Action = action or effet.
Actuellement vs Actually
Actuellement means "at the present time," and should be translated as currently or right now. Je travaille actuellement - I am currently working. A related word is actuel, which means present or current: le problème actuel - the current/present problem.
Actually means "in fact" and should be translated as en fait or à vrai dire. Actually, I don't know him - En fait, je ne le connais pas. Actual means real or true, and depending on the context can be translated as réel, véritable, positif, or concret : The actual value - la valeur réelle.
Adepte vs Adept
Adepte is a noun: follower or enthusiast.
Adept is an adjective: compétent or expert.
Addition vs Addition
Addition can refer to addition, a sum, or a restaurant check or bill.
Addition = une addition, une augmentation, or un surcroît.
Ado vs Ado
Ado is an apocope of adolescent - teen or teenager.
Ado is a somewhat rare word that is equivalent to agitation or bruit (figuratively).
Adresse vs Address
Adresse can refer to a mailing, email, or spoken address or to deftness, skill, or dexterity.
Address = une adresse or un discours.
Affaire vs Affair
Affaire can mean business, matter, deal, transaction, or scandal.
Affair is the equivalent of affaire only in the sense of an event or concern. A love affair is une liaison, une affaire d'amour, or une aventure amoureuse.
Affluence vs Affluence
Une affluence is a crowd of people: Il y avait une affluence attendant à la porte - There were crowds waiting at the door.
Affluence indicates a lot of something (usually wealth): There's an affluence of information here - Il y a une abondance d'information ici. His affluence is obvious - Sa richesse est évidente.
Agenda vs Agenda
Agenda refers to a datebook.
Agenda means l'ordre du jour or le programme.
Agonie vs Agony
Agonie refers to death pangs or mortal agony, while Agony means severe physical or mental pain, but not necessarily just this side of death: angoisse, supplice.
Agrément vs Agreement
Agrément refers to charm, attractiveness, or pleasantness.
Agreement = accord or harmonie.
Aimer vs Aim
Aimer means to like or to love.
Aim can be a noun - but, visées - or a verb - braquer, pointer, viser.
Allée vs Alley
Allée is a generic term for any sort of road or path: lane, path, avenue, driveway, etc. It can also refer to an aisle.
Alley = une ruelle.
Allure vs Allure
Allure normally refers to speed or pace: rouler à toute allure - to drive at full speed. It can also refer to an appearance or look. Allures refers to behavior or ways.
Allure indicates charm or attrait.
Altérer vs Alter
Altérer can mean alter, but it nearly always has a negative connotation: distort, falsify, tamper with, spoil, debase.
Alter = changer, modifier, transformer, etc.
Amateur vs Amateur
Amateur is a semi-false cognate. It can mean amateur in the sense of non-professional, but it can also mean a lover of something: un amateur d'art - an art lover.
Amateur refers to someone who dabbles in a trade or activity: an amateur photographer: un amateur de photographie.
Amitié vs Amity
Amitié is the generic French word for friendship, while Amity is used more specifically to mean peaceful relations between nations - concorde or bons rapports.
Ancien vs Ancient
Ancien can mean old in the sense of not young as well as in the sense of former: mon ancien professeur - my old (former) teacher, mon professeur ancien - my old (aged) teacher. Learn more about adjectives.
Ancient means antique or très vieux.
Antique vs Antique
Antique as an adjective means antique or ancient. As a noun, it refers to antiquity or classical art/style.
Antique means the same an adjective, but as a noun it refers to une antiquité, un objet d'art ancien, or un meuble ancien.
Apologie vs Apology
Apologie has three different meanings. The original meaning of defense or plea is related to the judiciary meaning of vindication or justification. The current and most common meaning is praise.
Apology = les excuses.
Appareil vs Apparel
Appareil is an apparatus, device, or appliance.
Apparel is an out-dated term for clothing: habillement.
Argument vs Argument
Argument is a semi-false cognate. It means argument in the sense of a mathematical or philosophical argument. Also: argument massue - sledgehammer blow; argument publicitaire - advertising claim; argument de vente - selling point.
Argument is une discussion, une conversation, un débat, or une dispute.
Arriver vs Arrive
Arriver can mean to arrive or to happen, while arriver à + verb means to succeed in doing or to manage to do something.
Arrive is translated by arriver.
Arroser vs Arose
Arroser means to water or spray.
Arose is the past participle of arise: survenir, se présenter, s'élever.
Assistance vs Assistance
Assistance is a semi-false cognate. Its primary meaning is audience.
Assistance indicates help or aid. Assister vs Assist
Assister à nearly always means to attend something: J'ai assisté à la conférence - I attended (went to) the conference.
Assist means to help or aid someone or something: I assisted the woman into the building - J'ai aidé la dame à entrer l'immeuble.
Assumer vs Assume
Assumer only means to assume in the sense of taking on responsibility or assuming control. It also means to hold a job or fulfill a role.
Assume is a semi-false cognate. In addition to assumer, it can also mean supposer or présumer.
Assurance vs Assurance
Assurance refers to self-confidence or insurance in addition to assurance.
Assurance means assurance or conviction.
Attendre vs Attend
Attendre à means to wait for: Nous avons attendu pendant deux heures - We waited for two hours.
Attend is translated by assister (see above): I attended the conference - J'ai assisté à la conférence.
Audience vs Audience
Audience is a semi-false cognate. In addition to the meaning of the English word, it can signify: Votre audience, s'il vous plaît - Your attention, please. Ce projet a un large audience - This project has a lot of attention. Donner audience à quelqu'un - To meet with / listen to someone. Audience publique - A public meeting.
Audience is a group of spectators or listeners.
Avertissement vs Advertisement
Avertissement is a warning or caution, from the verb avertir - to warn.
Advertisement is une publicité, une réclame, or un spot publicitaire.
B.
Bachelier vs Bachelor
Bachelier refers to a person who has passed the bac. Feminine - une bachelière.
Bachelor = un célibataire
Bail vs Bail
Bail is a lease; the plural is Baux.
Bail is une caution, on bail is sous caution.
Balance vs Balance
Balance is a pair of scales or weighing machine. It can also refer to an economic balance.
Balance can be all of the above, plus équilibre or aplomb.
Ballot vs Ballot
Ballot means a bundle or package while Ballot refers to a bulletin de vote (the paper upon which one votes) or a scrutin (the method of voting).
Basque vs Basque
Basque refers to the tails of a tuxedo jacket. In both French and English, Basque also refers to Basque country as well as its people and language.
Basque = une guêpière.
Bât vs Bat
Bât is a packsaddle. It's also found in the figurative expression C'est là où le bât blesse - There's the rub.
Bat is une chauve-souris, une batte, or une raquette.
Batterie vs Battery
Batterie is a semi-false cognate. It is equivalent to the English word in all senses, but it can also refer to a set of drums or the percussion instruments in a band.
Battery refers to an electrical device that provides power as well as military weapons: a battery of artillery - une batterie de canons.
Biais vs Bias
Biais is a general term for way or means, and can also mean angle in the sense of looking at an issue from a particular angle. Par le biais de - through, by means of. Le biais = bias only when referring to fabric (coupé dans le biais - cut on the bias).
Bias = tendance, inclination, penchant, préjugé.
Bigot vs Bigot
Bigot as an adjective means sanctimonious or holier-than-thou. As a noun = person who is sanctimonious or holier-than-thou.
Bigot is equivalent to fanatique or sectaire.
Black vs Black
Black is an informal noun/adjective for black people: un/e black - a black person, la musique black - black music.
Black = noir.
Blanc vs Blank
Blanc is a semi-false cognate. It is usually the French word for the color white but can in some instances be translated by blank: une feuille blanche - a blank sheet of paper.
Blank is an adjective meaning blanc, vierge, or vide.
Blesser vs Bless
Blesser means to wound, injure, or offend.
Bless means bénir.
Blinder vs Blinder/Blind
Blinder means to armor or to shore up. Informally, it means to harden or make immune. Familiarly, it means to get drunk.
Blinder is une oeillère. Blind means aveugle.
Bond vs Bond
Bond refers to a leap or jump. Bondir - to jump.
Bond can mean un engagement, une obligation, or un lien. To bond - coller.
Bout vs Bout
Bout means end, tip, or bit.
Bout refers to une crise (de rheumatisme) or un combat.
Bras vs Bras
Bras is an arm.
Bras is the plural of bra - soutien-gorge.
Brave vs Brave
Brave means brave when it follows the noun it modifies, but good or decent when it precedes it.
Position of adjectives
Brave = brave or, more commonly, courageux.
Bribe vs Bribe
Bribe refers to a bit or scrap of something.
Bribe as a noun is un pot-de-vin, to bribe = acheter (le silence de) quelqu'un, suborner, soudoyer.
Bride vs Bride
Une bride refers to a bridle.
Bride is une mariée.
Bureau vs Bureau
Bureau is a semi-false cognate. It can refer to a desk or an office, as well as a department: Bureau européen de l'environnement - European Environment Office.
Bureau can also mean a certain department, especially in government. In British English, a bureau has the same sense of desk as in French, but in American English a bureau is a chest of drawers: commode.
C.
Caméra vs Camera
Caméra is a movie camera.
Camera = un appareil photo.
Canal vs Canal
Canal can refer to a canal, a channel, or an intermediary.
Canal = un canal or un conduit.
Candide vs Candid
Candide means naïve or ingenuous; Candid means open or frank: franc, sincère.
Car vs Car
Car is most often used as a conjunction: because or for. As a noun, it refers to a coach or bus.
Car is une voiture.
Caractère vs Character
Caractère refers only to the character or temperament of a person or thing: Cette maison a du caractère - This house has character.
Character can mean nature/temperament: Education develops character - L'éducation développe le caractère, as well as a fictional character in a book, play, movie, etc.: Romeo is a famous character - Romeo est un personnage célèbre.
Carton vs Carton
Carton is a semi-false cognate. While it can refer to a box, it can also mean simply cardboard. It can also indicate a target, sketch, or card.
Carton can be a pot, carton, boîte, brick, or cartouche.
Case vs Case
Case is a square or a box (e.g., on a form), a compartment, or a hut.
Case can refer to un cas, un procès, or une valise.
Caution vs Caution
Caution is a financial term; it can mean guarantee, security, bail, or backing.
Caution indicates prudence, circonspection, or avertissement.
Ceinture vs Century
Ceinture is a belt.
Century is un siècle.
Célibataire vs Celibate
Celibataire as a noun means a bachelor, as an adjective can mean celibate or simply single/unmarried.
Celibate is the adjective célibataire.
Cent vs Cent
Cent is the French word for a hundred.
Cent can be figuratively translated by un sou. Literally, it is one hundredth of a dollar.
Chaîne vs Chain
Chaîne can refer to a chain, a production line, a TV channel, or a stereo.
Chain can be a noun - une chaîne, or a verb - enchaîner.
Chair vs Chair
Chair means flesh.
Chair can be une chaise, un fauteuil (armchair), or un siège (seat).
Champ vs Champ
Champ refers to a field (in all senses), while champs = country(side).
Champ is an informal abbreviation for champion - un champion.
Chance vs Chance
Chance means luck.
Chance refers to un hasard, une possibilité, or une occasion.
Charge vs Charge
Charge as a noun can mean burden, load, cargo, responsibility. The verb charger means to load or to charge.
Charge the noun can mean inculpation, accusation, or attaque. The verb to charge can mean accuser or faire payer.
Chat vs Chat
Chat is the French word for cat.
Chat is both a noun and a verb: bavarder/bavardage or discuter/discussion.
Chope vs Chop
Chope is a mug or pint.
Chop can be a noun - une côtelette, un coup - or a verb - trancher, couper, hacher.
Choir vs Choir
Choir is an old-fashioned or archaic verb which means to fall.
Choir indicates un choeur or une chorale.
Christian vs Christian
Christian is a masculine French name (learn more), while
Christian = (un) chrétien (not capitalized).
Chute vs Chute
Chute refers to a fall, loss, collapse, or failure.
Chute is une glissière.
Circulation vs Circulation
Circulation is a semi-false cognate. In addition to the circulation of air, water, etc., it can mean traffic.
Circulation means circulation or propagation.
Client vs Client
Client is a semi-false cognate. In addition to client, it can refer to a customer, patron, or patient.
Client is a client.
Coin vs Coin
Coin refers to a corner in every sense of the English word. It can also be used figuratively to mean area: l'épicier du coin - the local grocer.
Coin is a piece of metal used as money - une pièce de monnaie.
Collège vs College
Collège and lycée both refer to high school: Mon collège a 1 000 élèves - My high school has 1,000 students.
College is translated by université : This college's tuition is very expensive - Les frais de scolarité à cette université sont très élevés.
Combinaison vs Combination
Combinaison is a semi-false cognate. It can refer to a slip, overalls, or a ski-suit.
Combination is equivalent to the French in virtually all senses of the word. In British English, Combination can also refer to un side-car.
Combine vs Combine
Combine is an informal term for a trick or scheme.
Combine can be translated by une association, une corporation, or, in agriculture, une moissoneuse-batteuse. To combine = combiner or joindre.
Comédien vs Comedian
Comédien can refer to any actor, not just a comedian/comedy actor. It can also indicate a sham or show-off.
Comedian is a comédien or comique.
Commander vs Command
Commander is a semi-false cognate. It means to order (a command) as well as to order a meal or goods/services. Une commande is an order.
Command can be translated by commander, ordonner, or exiger. It is also a noun: ordre or commandement.
Comme vs Come
Comme means like or as.
Come is the verb venir.
Comment vs Comment
Comment is an adverb meaning how or what: Comment vas-tu ? - How are you? Comment t'appelles-tu ? - What is your name?
A Comment is une observation or un commentaire.
Commode vs Commode
Commode as an adjective means convenient or handy; as a noun it indicates a chest of drawers.
Commode rarely means a chest of drawers, in American English it usually refers to a toilet: toilettes or cabinets. In British English, it means a special chair with a hole, under which is a chamber pot (normally used by disabled persons): une chaise percée.
Commodité vs Commodity
Commodité means convenience: les commodités de la vie moderne - the conveniences of modern life.
Commodity refers to a product for trade, goods: produit, article, denrée (latter refers only to food).
Complet vs Complete
Complet is an adjective: complete, comprehensive, full, total. The feminine form is complète. It is also the noun for a men's suit.
Complete is an adjective: complet, terminé. It is also a verb: compléter, finir, remplir.
Compréhensif vs Comprehensive
Compréhensif can mean comprehensive as well as understanding or tolerant.
Comprehensive has many meanings: détaillé, complet, étendu, global, or compréhensif.
Compromis vs Compromise(d)
Compromis = a compromise, while the expression compromis de vente refers to a provisional sales agreement. As an adjective (past participle of compromettre), it means compromised in both the positive and negative sense (We have compromised with our friends and Our mission has been compromised).
Compromise refers to un compromis or une transaction. As a verb, it means compromettre, transiger, aboutir à/accepter un compromis.
Con vs Con
Con is a vulgar word that literally refers to female genitalia. It usually means an idiot, or is used as an adjective in the sense of bloody or damned.
Con can be a noun - la frime, une escroquerie, or a verb - duper, escroquer.
Concerner vs Concern(ed)
Concerner is a semi-false cognate. It means to concern only in the sense of to affect or to have to do with: Cela ne vous concerne pas - This doesn't concern/affect you. Thus concerné means affected by, not concerned about something.
Concern is both a noun and a verb. As a verb, it can mean concerner/toucher as well as inquiéter or préoccuper. The noun means rapport, affaire, souci, intérêt, etc.
Concierge vs Concierge
Concierge is a semi-false cognate. In addition to the concierge of a hotel, it can refer to the caretaker of a building or apartment house.
Concierge is a member of hotel staff.
Concret vs Concrete
Concret is an adjective which means concrete (in the sense of real/tangible or made of concrete). Feminine version: concrète.
Concrete can be an adjective or a noun: le béton.
Conducteur vs Conductor
Conducteur is the general French term for a driver. In terms of electricity, it is both a noun - conductor and an adjective - conductive, conducting.
Conductor refers to un contrôleur or un chef d'orchestre.
Conférence vs Conference
Conférence is a lecture or conference.
Conference is une conférence, un congrès, or une assemblée.
Confiance vs Confidence
Confiance can refer to confidence or trust.
Confidence means confiance, while self-confidence is assurance.
Confident vs Confident
Confident is a noun, the French equivalent of confidant - someone you tell all your secrets and private matters.
Confident is an adjective; the French equivalents are confiant, assuré, sûr, and persuadé.
Confortable vs Comfortable
Confortable = comfortable for a place or thing.
Comfortable can also be used for people, but in French this would be translated as à l'aise or bien.
Confus vs Confused
Confus means ashamed, embarrassed, disorganized, or uncertain.
Confused means désorienté, déconcerté, confondu, or embrouillé.
Conseil/Conseiller vs Counsel
Conseil can refer to a hint or piece of advice; a consultant or adviser; or a board, committee, or council. Conseiller means to recommend, advise, or counsel.
Counsel is a noun: une consultation, un conseil, une déliberation, un avocat (in formal English) and a verb: conseiller, recommander.
Consumer vs Consume
Consumer means to consume only as a fire or as ambition consumes.
Consume usually refers to eating or drinking something: consommer.
Contrée vs Country
Contrée refers only to the physical boundaries of a piece of land or a region.
Country can indicate un pays, une patrie, or la campagne.
Contrôle vs Control
Contrôle is a semi-false cognate. It usually refers to an inspection, verification, or test, but it can in some cases indicate self-control or control of a vehicle.
Control indicates power over someone (including oneself) or something.
Corde vs Cord
Corde refers to rope or a string on a musical instrument.
Cord = un cordon.
Corporation vs Corporation
Corporation can refer to a corporate body, guild, or, in general terms, profession.
Corporation is une société commerciale, société à responsabilité limitée, or compagnie commerciale. In the UK, it can also refer to un conseil municipal.
Corps vs Corps
Corps is a semi-false cognate. In addition to a body of people like Corps de la Paix - Peace Corps, corps can mean (human) body or corpse.
Corps refers to un corps of people.
Correspondance vs Correspondence
Correspondance can mean correspondence, conformity, balance, or a travel connection.
Correspondence means correspondance.
Courageux vs Courageous
Courageux can mean courageous, but is also used to mean up to or not lazy: Je ne suis pas courageux - I don't feel up to it; Sois courageux ! - Don't be lazy!
Courageous = courageux.
Course vs Course
la Course means running, une course is a trip, journey, or race.
Course refers to un cours or une route. Of course = bien sûr.
Courtisan vs Courtesan
Courtisan is a courtier or sycophant.
Courtesan is une courtisane.
Crâne vs Crane
Crâne means skull as a noun and gallant as an adjective.
Crane = une grue (both the bird and the machine).
Crayon vs Crayon
Crayon is a pencil.
Crayon translates as un crayon de couleur. The French language uses this expression for both crayon and colored pencil.
Crier vs Cry
Crier means to scream or shout.
Cry as a verb means pleurer; as a noun it is un cri.
Crise vs Crisis
Crise is a semi-false cognate; it has several meanings in addition to the English sense of crisis: une crise d'asthme- an asthma attack, une crise de colère - a fit of anger, une crise économique - an economic slump.
Crisis refers to an extremely serious event: crisis management - gestion de crise.
Crispé vs Crisp
Crispé means tensed or flexed, from the verb crisper.
Crisp is used mainly with food: croquant or croustillant.
Cuisine vs Cuisine
Cuisine is the kitchen or cooking.
Cuisine is just a fancy word for the cooking of a particular region ~ cuisine in French.
Va continua!!!!!!!!
A.
Abandon vs Abandon
Abandon is a noun that means abandonment, desertion, neglect, or giving up. It can also mean abandon, especially with a verb: danser avec abandon - to dance with abandon. Abandonner = to abandon.
Abandon = abandon.
Habileté vs Ability
Habileté refers to a skill, cleverness, a talent, or a skillful move.
Ability is a similar but weaker term, translatable by une aptitude, une capacité, or une compétence.
Abus vs Abuse
Abus can mean abuse, excess, or injustice.
Abuse = abus, while verbal abuse is des injures or insultes.
Abuser vs Abuse
Abuser means to exploit, abuse, take advantage of, deceive, or mislead. S'abuser means to be mistaken or to delude oneself.
Abuse can be translated by abuser, injurier, insulter, or maltraiter.
Accéder vs Accede
Accéder means to reach, attain, get to, access.
Accede has three different meanings. (1) to agree/accept: agréer, accepter. (2) to take on a new position: entrer en possession/fonction. (3) to join: adhérer, se joindre.
Accidenté vs Accidental
Accidenté can be an adjective: hilly, undulating, or damaged - or a noun: casualty, injured person. Accidenter means to injure or damage.
Accidental means accidentel (bad) or fortuit (good).
Achèvement vs Achievement
Achèvement refers to the completion or culmination of something.
Achievement has a more positive sense of attaining something that was sought after: exploit, réussite, accomplissement.
Achever vs Achieve
Achever usually means to finish, end, complete, reach. It can also be more figurative: to finish off, destroy, kill.
Achieve = accomplir, réaliser, atteindre.
Acompte vs Account
Acompte refers to a deposit, down payment, or installment.
Account = un compte.
Action vs Action
Action can mean action as well as act or a share of stock.
Action = action or effet.
Actuellement vs Actually
Actuellement means "at the present time," and should be translated as currently or right now. Je travaille actuellement - I am currently working. A related word is actuel, which means present or current: le problème actuel - the current/present problem.
Actually means "in fact" and should be translated as en fait or à vrai dire. Actually, I don't know him - En fait, je ne le connais pas. Actual means real or true, and depending on the context can be translated as réel, véritable, positif, or concret : The actual value - la valeur réelle.
Adepte vs Adept
Adepte is a noun: follower or enthusiast.
Adept is an adjective: compétent or expert.
Addition vs Addition
Addition can refer to addition, a sum, or a restaurant check or bill.
Addition = une addition, une augmentation, or un surcroît.
Ado vs Ado
Ado is an apocope of adolescent - teen or teenager.
Ado is a somewhat rare word that is equivalent to agitation or bruit (figuratively).
Adresse vs Address
Adresse can refer to a mailing, email, or spoken address or to deftness, skill, or dexterity.
Address = une adresse or un discours.
Affaire vs Affair
Affaire can mean business, matter, deal, transaction, or scandal.
Affair is the equivalent of affaire only in the sense of an event or concern. A love affair is une liaison, une affaire d'amour, or une aventure amoureuse.
Affluence vs Affluence
Une affluence is a crowd of people: Il y avait une affluence attendant à la porte - There were crowds waiting at the door.
Affluence indicates a lot of something (usually wealth): There's an affluence of information here - Il y a une abondance d'information ici. His affluence is obvious - Sa richesse est évidente.
Agenda vs Agenda
Agenda refers to a datebook.
Agenda means l'ordre du jour or le programme.
Agonie vs Agony
Agonie refers to death pangs or mortal agony, while Agony means severe physical or mental pain, but not necessarily just this side of death: angoisse, supplice.
Agrément vs Agreement
Agrément refers to charm, attractiveness, or pleasantness.
Agreement = accord or harmonie.
Aimer vs Aim
Aimer means to like or to love.
Aim can be a noun - but, visées - or a verb - braquer, pointer, viser.
Allée vs Alley
Allée is a generic term for any sort of road or path: lane, path, avenue, driveway, etc. It can also refer to an aisle.
Alley = une ruelle.
Allure vs Allure
Allure normally refers to speed or pace: rouler à toute allure - to drive at full speed. It can also refer to an appearance or look. Allures refers to behavior or ways.
Allure indicates charm or attrait.
Altérer vs Alter
Altérer can mean alter, but it nearly always has a negative connotation: distort, falsify, tamper with, spoil, debase.
Alter = changer, modifier, transformer, etc.
Amateur vs Amateur
Amateur is a semi-false cognate. It can mean amateur in the sense of non-professional, but it can also mean a lover of something: un amateur d'art - an art lover.
Amateur refers to someone who dabbles in a trade or activity: an amateur photographer: un amateur de photographie.
Amitié vs Amity
Amitié is the generic French word for friendship, while Amity is used more specifically to mean peaceful relations between nations - concorde or bons rapports.
Ancien vs Ancient
Ancien can mean old in the sense of not young as well as in the sense of former: mon ancien professeur - my old (former) teacher, mon professeur ancien - my old (aged) teacher. Learn more about adjectives.
Ancient means antique or très vieux.
Antique vs Antique
Antique as an adjective means antique or ancient. As a noun, it refers to antiquity or classical art/style.
Antique means the same an adjective, but as a noun it refers to une antiquité, un objet d'art ancien, or un meuble ancien.
Apologie vs Apology
Apologie has three different meanings. The original meaning of defense or plea is related to the judiciary meaning of vindication or justification. The current and most common meaning is praise.
Apology = les excuses.
Appareil vs Apparel
Appareil is an apparatus, device, or appliance.
Apparel is an out-dated term for clothing: habillement.
Argument vs Argument
Argument is a semi-false cognate. It means argument in the sense of a mathematical or philosophical argument. Also: argument massue - sledgehammer blow; argument publicitaire - advertising claim; argument de vente - selling point.
Argument is une discussion, une conversation, un débat, or une dispute.
Arriver vs Arrive
Arriver can mean to arrive or to happen, while arriver à + verb means to succeed in doing or to manage to do something.
Arrive is translated by arriver.
Arroser vs Arose
Arroser means to water or spray.
Arose is the past participle of arise: survenir, se présenter, s'élever.
Assistance vs Assistance
Assistance is a semi-false cognate. Its primary meaning is audience.
Assistance indicates help or aid. Assister vs Assist
Assister à nearly always means to attend something: J'ai assisté à la conférence - I attended (went to) the conference.
Assist means to help or aid someone or something: I assisted the woman into the building - J'ai aidé la dame à entrer l'immeuble.
Assumer vs Assume
Assumer only means to assume in the sense of taking on responsibility or assuming control. It also means to hold a job or fulfill a role.
Assume is a semi-false cognate. In addition to assumer, it can also mean supposer or présumer.
Assurance vs Assurance
Assurance refers to self-confidence or insurance in addition to assurance.
Assurance means assurance or conviction.
Attendre vs Attend
Attendre à means to wait for: Nous avons attendu pendant deux heures - We waited for two hours.
Attend is translated by assister (see above): I attended the conference - J'ai assisté à la conférence.
Audience vs Audience
Audience is a semi-false cognate. In addition to the meaning of the English word, it can signify: Votre audience, s'il vous plaît - Your attention, please. Ce projet a un large audience - This project has a lot of attention. Donner audience à quelqu'un - To meet with / listen to someone. Audience publique - A public meeting.
Audience is a group of spectators or listeners.
Avertissement vs Advertisement
Avertissement is a warning or caution, from the verb avertir - to warn.
Advertisement is une publicité, une réclame, or un spot publicitaire.
B.
Bachelier vs Bachelor
Bachelier refers to a person who has passed the bac. Feminine - une bachelière.
Bachelor = un célibataire
Bail vs Bail
Bail is a lease; the plural is Baux.
Bail is une caution, on bail is sous caution.
Balance vs Balance
Balance is a pair of scales or weighing machine. It can also refer to an economic balance.
Balance can be all of the above, plus équilibre or aplomb.
Ballot vs Ballot
Ballot means a bundle or package while Ballot refers to a bulletin de vote (the paper upon which one votes) or a scrutin (the method of voting).
Basque vs Basque
Basque refers to the tails of a tuxedo jacket. In both French and English, Basque also refers to Basque country as well as its people and language.
Basque = une guêpière.
Bât vs Bat
Bât is a packsaddle. It's also found in the figurative expression C'est là où le bât blesse - There's the rub.
Bat is une chauve-souris, une batte, or une raquette.
Batterie vs Battery
Batterie is a semi-false cognate. It is equivalent to the English word in all senses, but it can also refer to a set of drums or the percussion instruments in a band.
Battery refers to an electrical device that provides power as well as military weapons: a battery of artillery - une batterie de canons.
Biais vs Bias
Biais is a general term for way or means, and can also mean angle in the sense of looking at an issue from a particular angle. Par le biais de - through, by means of. Le biais = bias only when referring to fabric (coupé dans le biais - cut on the bias).
Bias = tendance, inclination, penchant, préjugé.
Bigot vs Bigot
Bigot as an adjective means sanctimonious or holier-than-thou. As a noun = person who is sanctimonious or holier-than-thou.
Bigot is equivalent to fanatique or sectaire.
Black vs Black
Black is an informal noun/adjective for black people: un/e black - a black person, la musique black - black music.
Black = noir.
Blanc vs Blank
Blanc is a semi-false cognate. It is usually the French word for the color white but can in some instances be translated by blank: une feuille blanche - a blank sheet of paper.
Blank is an adjective meaning blanc, vierge, or vide.
Blesser vs Bless
Blesser means to wound, injure, or offend.
Bless means bénir.
Blinder vs Blinder/Blind
Blinder means to armor or to shore up. Informally, it means to harden or make immune. Familiarly, it means to get drunk.
Blinder is une oeillère. Blind means aveugle.
Bond vs Bond
Bond refers to a leap or jump. Bondir - to jump.
Bond can mean un engagement, une obligation, or un lien. To bond - coller.
Bout vs Bout
Bout means end, tip, or bit.
Bout refers to une crise (de rheumatisme) or un combat.
Bras vs Bras
Bras is an arm.
Bras is the plural of bra - soutien-gorge.
Brave vs Brave
Brave means brave when it follows the noun it modifies, but good or decent when it precedes it.
Position of adjectives
Brave = brave or, more commonly, courageux.
Bribe vs Bribe
Bribe refers to a bit or scrap of something.
Bribe as a noun is un pot-de-vin, to bribe = acheter (le silence de) quelqu'un, suborner, soudoyer.
Bride vs Bride
Une bride refers to a bridle.
Bride is une mariée.
Bureau vs Bureau
Bureau is a semi-false cognate. It can refer to a desk or an office, as well as a department: Bureau européen de l'environnement - European Environment Office.
Bureau can also mean a certain department, especially in government. In British English, a bureau has the same sense of desk as in French, but in American English a bureau is a chest of drawers: commode.
C.
Caméra vs Camera
Caméra is a movie camera.
Camera = un appareil photo.
Canal vs Canal
Canal can refer to a canal, a channel, or an intermediary.
Canal = un canal or un conduit.
Candide vs Candid
Candide means naïve or ingenuous; Candid means open or frank: franc, sincère.
Car vs Car
Car is most often used as a conjunction: because or for. As a noun, it refers to a coach or bus.
Car is une voiture.
Caractère vs Character
Caractère refers only to the character or temperament of a person or thing: Cette maison a du caractère - This house has character.
Character can mean nature/temperament: Education develops character - L'éducation développe le caractère, as well as a fictional character in a book, play, movie, etc.: Romeo is a famous character - Romeo est un personnage célèbre.
Carton vs Carton
Carton is a semi-false cognate. While it can refer to a box, it can also mean simply cardboard. It can also indicate a target, sketch, or card.
Carton can be a pot, carton, boîte, brick, or cartouche.
Case vs Case
Case is a square or a box (e.g., on a form), a compartment, or a hut.
Case can refer to un cas, un procès, or une valise.
Caution vs Caution
Caution is a financial term; it can mean guarantee, security, bail, or backing.
Caution indicates prudence, circonspection, or avertissement.
Ceinture vs Century
Ceinture is a belt.
Century is un siècle.
Célibataire vs Celibate
Celibataire as a noun means a bachelor, as an adjective can mean celibate or simply single/unmarried.
Celibate is the adjective célibataire.
Cent vs Cent
Cent is the French word for a hundred.
Cent can be figuratively translated by un sou. Literally, it is one hundredth of a dollar.
Chaîne vs Chain
Chaîne can refer to a chain, a production line, a TV channel, or a stereo.
Chain can be a noun - une chaîne, or a verb - enchaîner.
Chair vs Chair
Chair means flesh.
Chair can be une chaise, un fauteuil (armchair), or un siège (seat).
Champ vs Champ
Champ refers to a field (in all senses), while champs = country(side).
Champ is an informal abbreviation for champion - un champion.
Chance vs Chance
Chance means luck.
Chance refers to un hasard, une possibilité, or une occasion.
Charge vs Charge
Charge as a noun can mean burden, load, cargo, responsibility. The verb charger means to load or to charge.
Charge the noun can mean inculpation, accusation, or attaque. The verb to charge can mean accuser or faire payer.
Chat vs Chat
Chat is the French word for cat.
Chat is both a noun and a verb: bavarder/bavardage or discuter/discussion.
Chope vs Chop
Chope is a mug or pint.
Chop can be a noun - une côtelette, un coup - or a verb - trancher, couper, hacher.
Choir vs Choir
Choir is an old-fashioned or archaic verb which means to fall.
Choir indicates un choeur or une chorale.
Christian vs Christian
Christian is a masculine French name (learn more), while
Christian = (un) chrétien (not capitalized).
Chute vs Chute
Chute refers to a fall, loss, collapse, or failure.
Chute is une glissière.
Circulation vs Circulation
Circulation is a semi-false cognate. In addition to the circulation of air, water, etc., it can mean traffic.
Circulation means circulation or propagation.
Client vs Client
Client is a semi-false cognate. In addition to client, it can refer to a customer, patron, or patient.
Client is a client.
Coin vs Coin
Coin refers to a corner in every sense of the English word. It can also be used figuratively to mean area: l'épicier du coin - the local grocer.
Coin is a piece of metal used as money - une pièce de monnaie.
Collège vs College
Collège and lycée both refer to high school: Mon collège a 1 000 élèves - My high school has 1,000 students.
College is translated by université : This college's tuition is very expensive - Les frais de scolarité à cette université sont très élevés.
Combinaison vs Combination
Combinaison is a semi-false cognate. It can refer to a slip, overalls, or a ski-suit.
Combination is equivalent to the French in virtually all senses of the word. In British English, Combination can also refer to un side-car.
Combine vs Combine
Combine is an informal term for a trick or scheme.
Combine can be translated by une association, une corporation, or, in agriculture, une moissoneuse-batteuse. To combine = combiner or joindre.
Comédien vs Comedian
Comédien can refer to any actor, not just a comedian/comedy actor. It can also indicate a sham or show-off.
Comedian is a comédien or comique.
Commander vs Command
Commander is a semi-false cognate. It means to order (a command) as well as to order a meal or goods/services. Une commande is an order.
Command can be translated by commander, ordonner, or exiger. It is also a noun: ordre or commandement.
Comme vs Come
Comme means like or as.
Come is the verb venir.
Comment vs Comment
Comment is an adverb meaning how or what: Comment vas-tu ? - How are you? Comment t'appelles-tu ? - What is your name?
A Comment is une observation or un commentaire.
Commode vs Commode
Commode as an adjective means convenient or handy; as a noun it indicates a chest of drawers.
Commode rarely means a chest of drawers, in American English it usually refers to a toilet: toilettes or cabinets. In British English, it means a special chair with a hole, under which is a chamber pot (normally used by disabled persons): une chaise percée.
Commodité vs Commodity
Commodité means convenience: les commodités de la vie moderne - the conveniences of modern life.
Commodity refers to a product for trade, goods: produit, article, denrée (latter refers only to food).
Complet vs Complete
Complet is an adjective: complete, comprehensive, full, total. The feminine form is complète. It is also the noun for a men's suit.
Complete is an adjective: complet, terminé. It is also a verb: compléter, finir, remplir.
Compréhensif vs Comprehensive
Compréhensif can mean comprehensive as well as understanding or tolerant.
Comprehensive has many meanings: détaillé, complet, étendu, global, or compréhensif.
Compromis vs Compromise(d)
Compromis = a compromise, while the expression compromis de vente refers to a provisional sales agreement. As an adjective (past participle of compromettre), it means compromised in both the positive and negative sense (We have compromised with our friends and Our mission has been compromised).
Compromise refers to un compromis or une transaction. As a verb, it means compromettre, transiger, aboutir à/accepter un compromis.
Con vs Con
Con is a vulgar word that literally refers to female genitalia. It usually means an idiot, or is used as an adjective in the sense of bloody or damned.
Con can be a noun - la frime, une escroquerie, or a verb - duper, escroquer.
Concerner vs Concern(ed)
Concerner is a semi-false cognate. It means to concern only in the sense of to affect or to have to do with: Cela ne vous concerne pas - This doesn't concern/affect you. Thus concerné means affected by, not concerned about something.
Concern is both a noun and a verb. As a verb, it can mean concerner/toucher as well as inquiéter or préoccuper. The noun means rapport, affaire, souci, intérêt, etc.
Concierge vs Concierge
Concierge is a semi-false cognate. In addition to the concierge of a hotel, it can refer to the caretaker of a building or apartment house.
Concierge is a member of hotel staff.
Concret vs Concrete
Concret is an adjective which means concrete (in the sense of real/tangible or made of concrete). Feminine version: concrète.
Concrete can be an adjective or a noun: le béton.
Conducteur vs Conductor
Conducteur is the general French term for a driver. In terms of electricity, it is both a noun - conductor and an adjective - conductive, conducting.
Conductor refers to un contrôleur or un chef d'orchestre.
Conférence vs Conference
Conférence is a lecture or conference.
Conference is une conférence, un congrès, or une assemblée.
Confiance vs Confidence
Confiance can refer to confidence or trust.
Confidence means confiance, while self-confidence is assurance.
Confident vs Confident
Confident is a noun, the French equivalent of confidant - someone you tell all your secrets and private matters.
Confident is an adjective; the French equivalents are confiant, assuré, sûr, and persuadé.
Confortable vs Comfortable
Confortable = comfortable for a place or thing.
Comfortable can also be used for people, but in French this would be translated as à l'aise or bien.
Confus vs Confused
Confus means ashamed, embarrassed, disorganized, or uncertain.
Confused means désorienté, déconcerté, confondu, or embrouillé.
Conseil/Conseiller vs Counsel
Conseil can refer to a hint or piece of advice; a consultant or adviser; or a board, committee, or council. Conseiller means to recommend, advise, or counsel.
Counsel is a noun: une consultation, un conseil, une déliberation, un avocat (in formal English) and a verb: conseiller, recommander.
Consumer vs Consume
Consumer means to consume only as a fire or as ambition consumes.
Consume usually refers to eating or drinking something: consommer.
Contrée vs Country
Contrée refers only to the physical boundaries of a piece of land or a region.
Country can indicate un pays, une patrie, or la campagne.
Contrôle vs Control
Contrôle is a semi-false cognate. It usually refers to an inspection, verification, or test, but it can in some cases indicate self-control or control of a vehicle.
Control indicates power over someone (including oneself) or something.
Corde vs Cord
Corde refers to rope or a string on a musical instrument.
Cord = un cordon.
Corporation vs Corporation
Corporation can refer to a corporate body, guild, or, in general terms, profession.
Corporation is une société commerciale, société à responsabilité limitée, or compagnie commerciale. In the UK, it can also refer to un conseil municipal.
Corps vs Corps
Corps is a semi-false cognate. In addition to a body of people like Corps de la Paix - Peace Corps, corps can mean (human) body or corpse.
Corps refers to un corps of people.
Correspondance vs Correspondence
Correspondance can mean correspondence, conformity, balance, or a travel connection.
Correspondence means correspondance.
Courageux vs Courageous
Courageux can mean courageous, but is also used to mean up to or not lazy: Je ne suis pas courageux - I don't feel up to it; Sois courageux ! - Don't be lazy!
Courageous = courageux.
Course vs Course
la Course means running, une course is a trip, journey, or race.
Course refers to un cours or une route. Of course = bien sûr.
Courtisan vs Courtesan
Courtisan is a courtier or sycophant.
Courtesan is une courtisane.
Crâne vs Crane
Crâne means skull as a noun and gallant as an adjective.
Crane = une grue (both the bird and the machine).
Crayon vs Crayon
Crayon is a pencil.
Crayon translates as un crayon de couleur. The French language uses this expression for both crayon and colored pencil.
Crier vs Cry
Crier means to scream or shout.
Cry as a verb means pleurer; as a noun it is un cri.
Crise vs Crisis
Crise is a semi-false cognate; it has several meanings in addition to the English sense of crisis: une crise d'asthme- an asthma attack, une crise de colère - a fit of anger, une crise économique - an economic slump.
Crisis refers to an extremely serious event: crisis management - gestion de crise.
Crispé vs Crisp
Crispé means tensed or flexed, from the verb crisper.
Crisp is used mainly with food: croquant or croustillant.
Cuisine vs Cuisine
Cuisine is the kitchen or cooking.
Cuisine is just a fancy word for the cooking of a particular region ~ cuisine in French.
Va continua!!!!!!!!
duminică, 20 ianuarie 2008
Examples of cultural preeminence of the English-speaking peoples
1. Monarchy on the British Isles
Indeed, the inhabitants of the British Isles were not the inventors of the monarchy. The term itself comes from old Greek, a language in which mono archon meant “one ruler” (archein = to rule) and defined the ancient type of totalitarian ruler, specific for all ancient cultures. The modern understanding of this term has lost its initial meaning, now referring to the ruler of a country, who passes on the attributes of his/her power to a member of the same family, according to hereditary rules, or by appointment (in less frequent cases – when the Parliament of the respective monarchy decides who should be the next King or Queen). Therefore, most monarchs inherit their title and continue to rule for the rest of their lives.
For the modern person, monarchy is connected to tradition, to a set of somewhat rigid rules which seem to “ignore” the spectacular changes of the modern world. One of them preserves the link (specific mainly for ancient times) between politics and religion: in the European monarchies, for instance, any coronation ceremony is performed by the head of the Church (the Pope, the Archbishop of Canterbury etc.) – thus preserving a long enduring tradition, that of the Roman Empire. In time, and especially in the 16th and 17th centuries, absolute monarchs made great efforts to justify what they considered as their “divine rights” on Earth. Yet, by that time, long fought for rights of nobles and burg citizens alike had concluded with the writing of fundamental documents (constitutions) which limited the monarch’s powers.
When asked about the English monarchy, most people think of William the Conqueror and the mediaeval times. Yet England had had many monarchs before that, during the rule of the Anglo-Saxons. Starting with the 5th century A.D. the Anglo-Saxon kings continued to lead the communities living on that land until 1066, based on a well structured social and political system and a common language which united those communities. Kings were followed on the throne by their eldest son (or daughter) – the system based on cognatic primogeniture, which was preserved throughout the Middle Age and modern times. In other parts of Europe, monarchies followed the rule of the agnatic primogeniture (whereby women were excluded from potential succession – similarly to the Salic law).
The monarchic concept was also exported to various territories which became part of the British colonial Empire. Local rulers became regents (vassals of the British King or Queen) and, though having limited powers due to the presence of British Governors, exerted a totalitarian rule over their own communities.
Today, the British monarchy is one of only ten surviving European monarchies. The role of the monarch has diminished in time, and especially during the 20th century. Queen Elizabeth II, for instance, has limited powers and only a decorative role in the context of British political decisions. Tradition, however, makes her one of the most respected and loved personalities in her country.
2. Political organization (first Parliament)
The political institution of the Parliament originated in England in the Middle Age. But the Anglo-Saxons also had a council of elders whose task was to take the right decisions for the community – the witenagemot [witunúgimot]. In Old English, this means “meeting of counsellors” (witan = counsellors of the Anglo-Saxon King – all of whom belonged to the A-S aristocracy). The Anglo-Saxon witenagemot included representatives of the nobility and religious leaders – the two categories with a major influence in the state. The number of council members varied according to local each king and his decisions; the counsellors had to give their assent in what laws, taxes, defence or negotiations with other princes were concerned. The meetings of the witan were not regular but they took place at any time as chosen by the king for taking decisions in important matters (See http://www.infoplease.com/ for other details).
In the 13th century the kings of Britain gathered the aristocracy and clergy representatives around them under the name of Curia Regis (Royal Court). This gathering laid the foundation for what is now known as the House of Lords. Members of Curia Regis only had executive powers, because all major decisions were taken by the king himself.
In 1265 (during the so-called “Barons’ War”) Simon de Montfort organized a Parliament which included representatives of Anglo-Saxon counties, towns and lesser clergy in an effort to gain the support of middle classes. Thirty years later (1295) Edward I summoned the Model Parliament that included high ranked and lesser clergymen, merchants, two knights from each county, and two representatives from each town in the effort to organize a body that would represent all major social classes, and this type of council remained unchanged for more than 50 years.
However, little by little, the representatives of the clergy withdrew from this Parliament almost completely (only 2 of them were left) but the remaining members gradually built the unitary body that took the name of House of Commons.
By the 15th century the Parliament had lost its administrative and legislative powers, especially due to the fact that the York kings and then the Tudor monarchs were very strong and turned the Parliament into an instrument of their will. However, during the last four centuries, periods of totalitarian rule alternated with times when the Parliament became stronger. The 20th century saw the monarch’s powers reduced to matters of protocol and traditional ritual. Once a year, the monarch speaks in front of the House of Commons (where he/she is only admitted after performing a special ritual – knocking three times on the massive doors) about the state of the nation; the tradition of this speech was established in the 15th century.
3. Major legal documents (Magna Charta 1215)
Also known under the name of “Mother of all Constitutions”, Magna Charta Libertatum, the legal document which acknowledged the rights of English nobles and restricted the totalitarian powers of the king was passed by king John (also known as “Lackland”) in 1215. Since Britain is still a monarchy, Magna Charta is still valid today, not having been replaced by a modern type of constitution. Britain and Israel are the only two countries in the world that do not have a “constitution” (a single representative legal document), but a number of legal documents which, together, stand for such an act.
Magna Carta Libertatum (“The Great Charter of Freedoms”) was issued in 1215, and it is considered the basis for what constitutional British law is today. Historians consider that it largely influenced the US Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Also, it is considered “one of the most important documents in the history of democracy” – Wikipedia).
Reason for being written: disagreements between King John (absolutist monarch, in the tradition of Norman kings) and the English aristocrats (who wanted the king to renounce certain rights and to abide by the law).
Many of its initial clauses were renewed during the late Middle Ages and in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Effects: It limited the power and prerogatives of the King or Queen (but some of these were reinstated during the following centuries).
The Petition of Rights is another key document of the British legal system. It was passed by the English Parliament during Charles I reign (1628).
Reasons for being written: trying unsuccessfully to avoid a civil war, aristocrats aimed to stop arbitrary arrests and imprisonments (“contrary to Magna Carta”), the king’s interference with property rights, the forced loans and the fact that the “habeas corpus” law was not enforced.
Effects: the fact that the King maintained his rights, although he had promised to “look into the abuses”, determined the outburst of the Civil War.
The Bill of Rights (1689) is an act which was passed by the Parliament of England (complete title: An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown) and which, together with Magna Carta, the Act of Settlement and various other Parliament Acts, is considered one of the basic documents of English constitutional law.
The Bill of Rights is also an important part of the legal system of some Commonwealth states (e.g. New Zealand), and a similar document (called the Claim of Right) is applied in Scotland.
Reason for being written: to assert the citizens’ fundamental rights (e.g. the right to petition the Monarch, the right to bear arms for defence) and to define certain obligations of the monarch (e.g. he/she must always ask for the consent of the Parliament for certain actions of the Crown – for instance, in case of war). Unlike the Bill of Rights of the US, this is only a list of rights referring to the people as represented in the Parliament (only Magna Carta sets out individual rights).
Effects: The first 8 amendments to the US Constitution are based on the English Bill of Rights.
The Act of Settlement (1701) was passed by the English Parliament, being an important legal document for the future of the Royalty.
Reason for being written: in order to settle the succession to the throne in favour of Protestant monarchs.
King William III was a widower and had no children, and according to the existing law the line of succession was limited. The main purpose was to allow the succession to continue in the Protestant line, and to exclude any Catholic claims to the throne.
Effects: no Catholic monarchs in England/Britain since that time.
The Acts of Union (1706/1707 with Scotland, 1800/1801 with Ireland)
Reason for being signed: these acts confirmed the union of Scotland and Ireland respectively, to the Kingdom of England, as an effect of political will.
One of the reasons on the part of the English was to establish the Royal succession along Protestant lines. Also, England worried that a Scottish king might make alliances against England.
Effects: through the Act of Union of 1707, a new state – The Kingdom of Great Britain – was created.
The Parliament of England and that of Scotland were dissolved and a new Parliament emerged – the Parliament of Great Britain, based at Westminster.
In the case of the Act of Union with the Irish (passed 1800/ made effective1801) non-Anglicans had no right to become members of the Parliament (around 90% of the Irish population was thus excluded). The newly emerging state took the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
In order to offer larger representational rights to all citizens, in 1829 a Catholic Emancipation Act was passed, allowing Irish Catholics to become members of the Parliament.
4. Break-up with traditional state religion (Henry VIII)
Henry VIII is mostly known for three major reasons: for being an absolute monarch, for breaking away from the dominance of the Pope and Catholicism (thereby setting up a new Christian confession named The Church of England along with the dissolution of all monasteries), as well as for having had six wives (of whom only the last outlived him, the others having had quite dramatic deaths).
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England for an extensive presentation of Henry VIII’s life and actions.
The most important event which took place during his reign is the so-called English Reformation, which led to the replacement of Papal supremacy by the Church of England. Documentary sources present the king’s decision as having been motivated primarily by political reasons (all catholic churches and monasteries were very rich and independent from the English monarch, because their leader was the Pope). Catholic communities were very powerful and Catholic counselors exerted their dominance at the Royal Court as well, putting constant pressure on the king. The riches of said churches and monasteries were also considered as an important source for financing various state projects at Henry’s will. The pretext, however, was a more mundane one – the king seemingly wanting to break his marriage with Catherine of Aragon in order to marry a younger lady, Ann Boleyn (in hope of producing a male heir).
The breech with the Pope in Rome took place in the spring of 1534; a year before that the Pope had excommunicated the rebel king (some documentary sources place this event as late as 1338). The immediate result was England’s religious independence, which inspired other European countries to break away from Rome and Catholicism, by embracing Protestant confessions.
The cultural background was appropriate for such a move. It was the time of Martin Luther and of his claim that the Catholic Church had become heretical and no longer upheld the original teachings of Jesus and the Apostles. It was a time when Catholic priests sold indulgencies – papers by which, in exchange for a sum of money, they granted people’s ascent to Heavens and the forgiveness of all sins – thereby gathering large amounts of money which could not be touched by the civil state.
Henry VIII determined the Parliament to pass a number of acts which neutralized any further action by the Catholic Church on the English territory; he himself was declared “the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England”; anyone who challenged this title risked the death penalty for treason.
Being a monarch who had great faith in his own power and authority, Henry VIII also made certain changes in the type of vocabulary used in the Royal Court. He was the first to use the term “Majesty” (inspired from French) as an alternative for the existing “Royal Highness” or “Grace”. In 1535 he proclaimed himself “Henry VIII, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith, Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in Earth Supreme Head”.
5. Religious persecution as reason for colonization (James I – 1603; Pilgrim Fathers - 1620)
1620 is conventionally known as the starting year for massive immigrations to Northern America. Previously, Sir Walter Raleigh's Roanoke colony arrived in Virginia in 1587 (with 120 colonists, of whom only 17 women). That same year (1587), the first American-English baby was born: her name was Virginia Dare, and she was actually named after the region where the settlement had taken place.
The religious reasons were the main cause for trying to leave England in search of a new life, far away from home:
- Puritan religious beliefs were considered intolerable under James I (a Catholic), who came to the throne of England after the death of Elizabeth I, in 1603
- Marriage was considered a civil affair, not a religious sacrament (to be handled by the state). Marriage was a “contract”, mutually agreed by man and woman, for procreation and avoidance of adultery.
- icons and religious symbols were rejected
- rejection of (Catholic) Church hierarchy
- no celebration for Christmas and Easter (celebrations “invented by man to remember Jesus”); no work on Sundays
The period which started with the symbolic year 1620 and ended with the fight for independence of the 1760s is commonly known as the “Colonial era”. Little by little, the colonists’ settlements grouped into the 13 British colonies which later formed the United States.
They had many things in common: the language (English, although Dutch could still be heard in certain parts of the British-held territory – for instance on the Island of Manhattan), various economic interests (e.g. the East India Company, the first private chartered company whose overseas rights were granted by the British Crown, set up a branch in Boston), the British Monarchy tradition and the acknowledged psychological and social force of a strong nation.
6. The concept of “revolution”
The modern concept of “revolution” seems to have its roots in the so-called “Glorious Revolution” of 1688, during the period when England was ruled by the Stuart family.
The 17th century frictions between the totalitarian kings and the Parliament reached their peak during the Civil War which saw Oliver Cromwell assume the power in the state after beheading king Charles I Stuart in 1649. But Cromwell’s new state only lasted until 1658 when, upon his death, the Parliament decided to invite Charles II to restore the monarchy and become king. From a historical point of view, this was the so-called Restoration.
Unfortunately, after having stayed in exile in France all through the period of Cromwell’s rule, Charles II had also learned the authoritarian ruling methods of Louis XIV (the French king who once said: “L’état c’est moi!”), that he was now ready to apply in England. This led to an even stronger discontent between the new king and the Parliament. Here are some of the issues separating the two powers of the state[1]:
- the King is above the law (Charles II) – vs. the King must abide by the law (Parliament);
- the King favoured Catholicism (under French influence), while the Parliament wished to continue the Protestant tradition
- the King saw France as an ally, while the Parliament saw it as the fiercest enemy
- the King wanted to have complete authority over tax collection and personal expenditures, while the Parliament considered that it should have the final decision in this matter
- the King ignored the judicial system and wanted to be the only one to decide punishments, while the Parliament considered that any impeachment should be made according to the law
Upon Charles’ death, his brother James II ascended to the throne, in spite of the Parliament’s protests, which were mainly religious in nature (he was also a Catholic). When the frictions between the King and the Parliament reached a new climax, members of the Parliament contacted James’s daughter Mary Stuart and her husband, William of Orange (the Dutch prince), proposing them to seize the throne. Eventually James II abdicated in 1689 and William of Orange and his wife started a co-reign on the throne of England.
It was the only time in the history of England when this happened. Usually, the wife or husband of the monarch is called a “consort” (“Prince consort” or “Queen consort”).
Legal consequence: in 1689, the Parliament passed the English Bill of Rights, the Toleration Act, and the Mutiny Act that collectively committed the monarchs to respect Parliament and Parliament's laws.
Financial consequence: the constitutional credibility of the English Parliament determined a renewed trust in the English currency. “The Glorious Revolution unleashed a revolution in public finance. The most prominent element was the introduction of long-run borrowing by the government, because such borrowing absolutely relied on the government's fiscal credibility.”[2]
“Credible government debt formed the basis of the Bank of England in 1694 and the core of the London stock market. The combination of these changes has been called the Financial Revolution and was essential for Britain's emergence as a Great Power in the eighteenth century.”[3]
7. The institution of the “Prime Minister” and his “cabinet”
The house of the Hanoverians included four kings by the name of George, and this is why this period is also known as “Georgian Britain”. It started in 1714 (when George I became a king) and ended in 1820 (when George III died). However, the Hanoverian ruling family produced two more monarchs: William IV and Victoria.
The Georgian period is remembered due to a series of facts that marked the cultural and historical development of Britain – as a country and as an empire:
a. GEORGE I (1714 - 1727) did not speak English so he could not rule properly, therefore he appointed trusted politicians to be responsible for all governing activities. These were the first “Prime Ministers” that Britain had and they grouped around them a number of politicians – the future “Cabinet” – to take care of various parts of the governing effort.
b. Due to irresponsible financial manoeuvring (the national debt in his time reached 31 million pounds) the stock market crashed and the government as well as thousands of investors were declared bankrupt. From 1720s on the Bank of England became officially responsible for the finances of the country and British economy became “the best managed” in Europe over the next centuries.
c. During the reign of GEORGE II (1727 – 1760) Prince Charles Stuart marched into England in an attempt to free Scotland (which had become part of Britain in 1707) and take the crown. He was eventually defeated but became a major Scottish hero, along with Mary Stuart.
d. Social stability was at a high level. The system was focused on protecting the landlords’ interests while the exercise of influence worked in the relationships with the other social layers.
e. The British Museum was founded in 1753, first based on the collections of Sir Hans Sloane and Sir Robert Cotton, to which the earls of Oxford added their personal library. The Royal Library, founded by Henry VII also became a part of the British Museum.
f. A “Seven Years War” with France began during his reign (1755) and ended during the reign of George III (1763). The war resulted in new territories being added to the British Empire (in Canada, Florida, Grenada, Senegal and East of the Mississippi River). The Indian sub-continent also became a territory exclusively administered by the British (France had also had interests there). The East India Company became the most important trade company in the area, bringing all kinds of products to Britain.
g. GEORGE III (1760 – 1820) was insane and often proved unfit to rule. During his reign the American colonies broke with the British rule and became independent after the Revolution (1775-1783).
h. Also during his reign Ireland was officially unified with Great Britain (1801), which turned Great Britain into the United Kingdom.
i. Horatio Nelson became a national hero after the naval victories over Napoleon (the Battle of the Nile – 1798 and Trafalgar – 1805). Nelson actually died at Trafalgar. Another national hero was Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington who managed to defeat Napoleon at Waterloo (near Brussels) in 1815.
j. The industrial development led to protests from blue-collar workers, but the new steam-driven machines nevertheless were adopted in all industrial areas due to their efficiency and working speed. This was in fact the period of the EARLY INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, and one of the causes for its impact was the approval of laws (Acts) by which landowners introduced improved farming methods and machines, forcing many of the farm workers to move to town, where they became the work force that implemented the Industrial Revolution.
k. In 1810 George III was officially proclaimed “unfit to rule” and his son George was appointed Regent (until 1820). He was an extravagant, heavy drinker, women-lover, impulsive ruler but his passion for expensive, finely decorated architecture resulted in remarkable buildings such as the Brighton Pavilion (on the Channel coast). He finally became king in 1820 and ruled until 1830 as GEORGE IV.
l. During his rule the first regular police force was established in London.
m. The Catholic Emancipation Bill of 1829 gave Catholics the right to vote, become members of Parliament and hold public office. The electoral reform was also on its way.
Upon the death of George IV in 1830 his brother became king William IV as the next in line and in 1837 he was followed by Queen Victoria (1837 – 1901) – a time when the British Empire reached its peak.
8. Human rights – Charters of Freedom (USA)
See http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration.html for a detailed presentation of the main documents
The fundamental Acts of the USA are the Declaration of Independence (although not a part of the legal system, it the most important symbol of liberty for all Americans), the Constitution (the supreme law) and the Bill of Rights – all of whom are known as the Charters of Freedom. In fact, the American legal system was originally derived from the system of English law, which was in force in the colonies at the time of the Revolution.[4]
The specificity of US law is that, apart from federal laws (inspired from the Constitution, and which are in force in all 50 states) there is also a system of local laws, applicable in each state only. The 50 American states are considered “separate sovereigns”, which have their own constitutions and have the right to pass their own laws, as seen fit by local authorities.
Various attempts have been made, along the years, to unify these state laws, but with only few positive results. Two examples of uniform laws are the Model Penal Code (a project of the American Law Institute) and the Uniform Commercial Code.
The Declaration of Independence (4th July 1776) was voted “the most influential document in American history” (75.9% during a Government survey which took place in 2002).
The original, faded document (engrossed on parchment) is now exhibited in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom, at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., along with the originals of the Constitution and of the Bill of Rights, in specially sealed encasements, meant to protect them from decay.
There are also a number of 25 official copies on paper known today – of the 200 initially engraved from a stone plate (20 owned by American institutions, 2 by British institutions and 3 by private owners).
The first section of the body of the Declaration gives evidence of the "long train of abuses and usurpations" heaped upon the colonists by King George III. The second section of the body states that the colonists had appealed in vain to their "British brethren" for a redress of their grievances.
The Declaration concludes that "these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved.”
The Constitution of the United States (1787) is the oldest Federal constitution in existence, and it was conceived by the delegates of 12 of the 13 original states. It is the major legal document of the US. It was ratified by all 13 states (including New York) until late 1788, but with promises of several amendments.
Reason for being written: after 11 years of independence, the new state was confronted with economic depression, social unrest and rivalries between different states. In early 1787, the US Congress asked all 13 states to revise the Articles of Confederation. Following a number of secret meetings (regarding some essential issues, such as: how much power to allow the central government, how many representatives in Congress to allow each state, and how these representatives should be elected - directly by the people or by the state legislators), the US Constitution was ready, and it was intended as an entirely new plan of Government: a central Government made of 3 branches (legislative, executive and judicial) which are thus organised as to balance each other.
The Bill of Rights (presented by President George Washington in 1789 and ratified by 9 of the 13 states by the end of 1791) included a number of 12 amendments, of the 17 initially proposed by the Congress. Ten of these were approved, and they were made known to all under the name of Bill of Rights.
The reason for further legal provisions was the fact that anti-federalists had constantly attacked the Constitution as being too vague; they also protested against the fact that it did not make any specific mention regarding the ways in which the state would be protected against tyranny. Civil rights, such as the freedom of speech, the freedom of the press, the freedom of assembly, or the right to a fair and speedy trial had not been included in the original text of the Constitution.
The American Revolution has a number of specific features in comparison with the revolutions which took place in Europe, starting with the end of the 18th century: it was positive in motivation and goals; it did not justify mass killing of the enemy according to ideological reasons (as did the French Revolution of 1789); it opened the way for a modern understanding of human relationships and of the laws governing them; it consecrated the role of a Constitution which should be observed by all; it started from the assumption that “all men are born equal”.
9. Industrial revolution
The beginnings of the industrial revolution are closely linked to Britain under the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901).
It was a time of inventions, reforms and deep social changes. Specific laws were passed with the purpose of implementing political and social reform.
The success of the 1851 World Fair (the first world exhibition of manufactured goods) resulted in Victoria’s reign being called the “Victorian Age”. During her reign, Britain became the greatest colonial power in the world, and statistics estimate that one in four inhabitants of any part of the world was a British subject. Victoria herself was declared Empress of India – a title which remained linked to the British Crown until the emancipation of the Indian sub-continent, followed by the formation of newly-independent states India and Pakistan in the late 1920s.
In the same period, Britain also became the first urban industrial society in history. Urbanization in Britain meant that large numbers of people moved from rural to urban areas due to industrialization (by 1900 80% of the population lived in cities). This deep social change determined an increased importance of the bourgeoisie, at the expense of aristocratic landlords; thus, Britain completed its shift from a feudal system to a modern, industrialized society.
Great inventions paved the way for further modernization: 1825 – the first steam locomotive (made by George Stephenson, who called it a “rocket”). The development of faster transport means (railways) led to an increase of exchanges of goods and of individual consumption.
Britain was also the country which saw the beginnings of the Trade Unions (inspired from the mediaeval guilds) – which were legalized in 1871; by 1890 there were 1.5 M trade union members – a foundation for the modern Labour Party.
A major trend in Victorian Britain was the importance of learning under state guidance: after 1870 education became compulsory for all children.
10. Women’s rights (the Suffragette movement)
It took a long time until women’s working capacities were fully recognised and trusted. The trained English nurses of the Boer War (1899-1902) were those who called everyone’s attention to the fact that women were deprived of many well deserved rights – among which, the right to vote.
Although a formal military nursing service did not exist in the army prior to the latter half of the 19th century, recent extensive research suggests that nursing care was provided to the army during the reign of Elizabeth 1st and the English Civil War. During the 18th century military hospitals had Matrons and nurses working in them but the training and standard of care was not of a high standard.
At the same time, in the US, during the early nineteenth century, women participated in numerous efforts to improve women's status, defend their interests, and increase their rights. Educators, such as Emma Willard, Mary Lyon, and Catharine Beecher, promoted advanced training for women in female academies and seminaries. Thousands of women in the 1830s and 1840s joined moral reform societies, organized especially in protest of women being used for prostitution.
The first women's rights meeting, at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848, capitalized on women's antislavery experience. Called by Mott and Stanton, who had met at an 1840 antislavery convention in London, and some Quaker friends, the convention attracted about three hundred women and men. One-third of the participants signed a "Declaration of Sentiments," modelled on the Declaration of Independence.
In 1919, the US Congress at last approved woman suffrage and in August 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment (women’s right to vote) was ratified by the states.
The word "suffragette" was first used to describe women campaigning for the right to vote in an article in a British newspaper in 1906.
At the time, only two-thirds of the male population could vote.
Those who could not vote included:
- men who did not own property or pay at least £10/year in rent- servants who lived with their employers- criminals- “lunatics” (individuals who were officially deemed crazy)
British women and men had been arguing for both universal and women’s suffrage since the 1860s. The movement for women’s votes accelerated when Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903 – a more radical organization than some of the earlier ones fighting for suffrage. Its slogan was "Deeds Not Words".
On 2 July 1928, a law was passed allowing all women over the age of 21 to vote. Many people said that the Act was passed as a reward for women’s efforts during the war rather than anything the suffragettes did.
[1] See Quinn’s article about the “Glorious Revolution” at http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/quinn.revolution.1688
[2] Ibidem, page 5
[3] Neal, Larry. "How it All Began: the Monetary and Financial Architecture of Europe during the First Global Capital Markets, 1648-1815." Financial History Review 7 (2000): 117-40
[4] For more details about the US law, see Law of the United States, in Wikipedia, the free Encyclopaedia
Indeed, the inhabitants of the British Isles were not the inventors of the monarchy. The term itself comes from old Greek, a language in which mono archon meant “one ruler” (archein = to rule) and defined the ancient type of totalitarian ruler, specific for all ancient cultures. The modern understanding of this term has lost its initial meaning, now referring to the ruler of a country, who passes on the attributes of his/her power to a member of the same family, according to hereditary rules, or by appointment (in less frequent cases – when the Parliament of the respective monarchy decides who should be the next King or Queen). Therefore, most monarchs inherit their title and continue to rule for the rest of their lives.
For the modern person, monarchy is connected to tradition, to a set of somewhat rigid rules which seem to “ignore” the spectacular changes of the modern world. One of them preserves the link (specific mainly for ancient times) between politics and religion: in the European monarchies, for instance, any coronation ceremony is performed by the head of the Church (the Pope, the Archbishop of Canterbury etc.) – thus preserving a long enduring tradition, that of the Roman Empire. In time, and especially in the 16th and 17th centuries, absolute monarchs made great efforts to justify what they considered as their “divine rights” on Earth. Yet, by that time, long fought for rights of nobles and burg citizens alike had concluded with the writing of fundamental documents (constitutions) which limited the monarch’s powers.
When asked about the English monarchy, most people think of William the Conqueror and the mediaeval times. Yet England had had many monarchs before that, during the rule of the Anglo-Saxons. Starting with the 5th century A.D. the Anglo-Saxon kings continued to lead the communities living on that land until 1066, based on a well structured social and political system and a common language which united those communities. Kings were followed on the throne by their eldest son (or daughter) – the system based on cognatic primogeniture, which was preserved throughout the Middle Age and modern times. In other parts of Europe, monarchies followed the rule of the agnatic primogeniture (whereby women were excluded from potential succession – similarly to the Salic law).
The monarchic concept was also exported to various territories which became part of the British colonial Empire. Local rulers became regents (vassals of the British King or Queen) and, though having limited powers due to the presence of British Governors, exerted a totalitarian rule over their own communities.
Today, the British monarchy is one of only ten surviving European monarchies. The role of the monarch has diminished in time, and especially during the 20th century. Queen Elizabeth II, for instance, has limited powers and only a decorative role in the context of British political decisions. Tradition, however, makes her one of the most respected and loved personalities in her country.
2. Political organization (first Parliament)
The political institution of the Parliament originated in England in the Middle Age. But the Anglo-Saxons also had a council of elders whose task was to take the right decisions for the community – the witenagemot [witunúgimot]. In Old English, this means “meeting of counsellors” (witan = counsellors of the Anglo-Saxon King – all of whom belonged to the A-S aristocracy). The Anglo-Saxon witenagemot included representatives of the nobility and religious leaders – the two categories with a major influence in the state. The number of council members varied according to local each king and his decisions; the counsellors had to give their assent in what laws, taxes, defence or negotiations with other princes were concerned. The meetings of the witan were not regular but they took place at any time as chosen by the king for taking decisions in important matters (See http://www.infoplease.com/ for other details).
In the 13th century the kings of Britain gathered the aristocracy and clergy representatives around them under the name of Curia Regis (Royal Court). This gathering laid the foundation for what is now known as the House of Lords. Members of Curia Regis only had executive powers, because all major decisions were taken by the king himself.
In 1265 (during the so-called “Barons’ War”) Simon de Montfort organized a Parliament which included representatives of Anglo-Saxon counties, towns and lesser clergy in an effort to gain the support of middle classes. Thirty years later (1295) Edward I summoned the Model Parliament that included high ranked and lesser clergymen, merchants, two knights from each county, and two representatives from each town in the effort to organize a body that would represent all major social classes, and this type of council remained unchanged for more than 50 years.
However, little by little, the representatives of the clergy withdrew from this Parliament almost completely (only 2 of them were left) but the remaining members gradually built the unitary body that took the name of House of Commons.
By the 15th century the Parliament had lost its administrative and legislative powers, especially due to the fact that the York kings and then the Tudor monarchs were very strong and turned the Parliament into an instrument of their will. However, during the last four centuries, periods of totalitarian rule alternated with times when the Parliament became stronger. The 20th century saw the monarch’s powers reduced to matters of protocol and traditional ritual. Once a year, the monarch speaks in front of the House of Commons (where he/she is only admitted after performing a special ritual – knocking three times on the massive doors) about the state of the nation; the tradition of this speech was established in the 15th century.
3. Major legal documents (Magna Charta 1215)
Also known under the name of “Mother of all Constitutions”, Magna Charta Libertatum, the legal document which acknowledged the rights of English nobles and restricted the totalitarian powers of the king was passed by king John (also known as “Lackland”) in 1215. Since Britain is still a monarchy, Magna Charta is still valid today, not having been replaced by a modern type of constitution. Britain and Israel are the only two countries in the world that do not have a “constitution” (a single representative legal document), but a number of legal documents which, together, stand for such an act.
Magna Carta Libertatum (“The Great Charter of Freedoms”) was issued in 1215, and it is considered the basis for what constitutional British law is today. Historians consider that it largely influenced the US Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Also, it is considered “one of the most important documents in the history of democracy” – Wikipedia).
Reason for being written: disagreements between King John (absolutist monarch, in the tradition of Norman kings) and the English aristocrats (who wanted the king to renounce certain rights and to abide by the law).
Many of its initial clauses were renewed during the late Middle Ages and in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Effects: It limited the power and prerogatives of the King or Queen (but some of these were reinstated during the following centuries).
The Petition of Rights is another key document of the British legal system. It was passed by the English Parliament during Charles I reign (1628).
Reasons for being written: trying unsuccessfully to avoid a civil war, aristocrats aimed to stop arbitrary arrests and imprisonments (“contrary to Magna Carta”), the king’s interference with property rights, the forced loans and the fact that the “habeas corpus” law was not enforced.
Effects: the fact that the King maintained his rights, although he had promised to “look into the abuses”, determined the outburst of the Civil War.
The Bill of Rights (1689) is an act which was passed by the Parliament of England (complete title: An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject and Settling the Succession of the Crown) and which, together with Magna Carta, the Act of Settlement and various other Parliament Acts, is considered one of the basic documents of English constitutional law.
The Bill of Rights is also an important part of the legal system of some Commonwealth states (e.g. New Zealand), and a similar document (called the Claim of Right) is applied in Scotland.
Reason for being written: to assert the citizens’ fundamental rights (e.g. the right to petition the Monarch, the right to bear arms for defence) and to define certain obligations of the monarch (e.g. he/she must always ask for the consent of the Parliament for certain actions of the Crown – for instance, in case of war). Unlike the Bill of Rights of the US, this is only a list of rights referring to the people as represented in the Parliament (only Magna Carta sets out individual rights).
Effects: The first 8 amendments to the US Constitution are based on the English Bill of Rights.
The Act of Settlement (1701) was passed by the English Parliament, being an important legal document for the future of the Royalty.
Reason for being written: in order to settle the succession to the throne in favour of Protestant monarchs.
King William III was a widower and had no children, and according to the existing law the line of succession was limited. The main purpose was to allow the succession to continue in the Protestant line, and to exclude any Catholic claims to the throne.
Effects: no Catholic monarchs in England/Britain since that time.
The Acts of Union (1706/1707 with Scotland, 1800/1801 with Ireland)
Reason for being signed: these acts confirmed the union of Scotland and Ireland respectively, to the Kingdom of England, as an effect of political will.
One of the reasons on the part of the English was to establish the Royal succession along Protestant lines. Also, England worried that a Scottish king might make alliances against England.
Effects: through the Act of Union of 1707, a new state – The Kingdom of Great Britain – was created.
The Parliament of England and that of Scotland were dissolved and a new Parliament emerged – the Parliament of Great Britain, based at Westminster.
In the case of the Act of Union with the Irish (passed 1800/ made effective1801) non-Anglicans had no right to become members of the Parliament (around 90% of the Irish population was thus excluded). The newly emerging state took the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
In order to offer larger representational rights to all citizens, in 1829 a Catholic Emancipation Act was passed, allowing Irish Catholics to become members of the Parliament.
4. Break-up with traditional state religion (Henry VIII)
Henry VIII is mostly known for three major reasons: for being an absolute monarch, for breaking away from the dominance of the Pope and Catholicism (thereby setting up a new Christian confession named The Church of England along with the dissolution of all monasteries), as well as for having had six wives (of whom only the last outlived him, the others having had quite dramatic deaths).
See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England for an extensive presentation of Henry VIII’s life and actions.
The most important event which took place during his reign is the so-called English Reformation, which led to the replacement of Papal supremacy by the Church of England. Documentary sources present the king’s decision as having been motivated primarily by political reasons (all catholic churches and monasteries were very rich and independent from the English monarch, because their leader was the Pope). Catholic communities were very powerful and Catholic counselors exerted their dominance at the Royal Court as well, putting constant pressure on the king. The riches of said churches and monasteries were also considered as an important source for financing various state projects at Henry’s will. The pretext, however, was a more mundane one – the king seemingly wanting to break his marriage with Catherine of Aragon in order to marry a younger lady, Ann Boleyn (in hope of producing a male heir).
The breech with the Pope in Rome took place in the spring of 1534; a year before that the Pope had excommunicated the rebel king (some documentary sources place this event as late as 1338). The immediate result was England’s religious independence, which inspired other European countries to break away from Rome and Catholicism, by embracing Protestant confessions.
The cultural background was appropriate for such a move. It was the time of Martin Luther and of his claim that the Catholic Church had become heretical and no longer upheld the original teachings of Jesus and the Apostles. It was a time when Catholic priests sold indulgencies – papers by which, in exchange for a sum of money, they granted people’s ascent to Heavens and the forgiveness of all sins – thereby gathering large amounts of money which could not be touched by the civil state.
Henry VIII determined the Parliament to pass a number of acts which neutralized any further action by the Catholic Church on the English territory; he himself was declared “the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England”; anyone who challenged this title risked the death penalty for treason.
Being a monarch who had great faith in his own power and authority, Henry VIII also made certain changes in the type of vocabulary used in the Royal Court. He was the first to use the term “Majesty” (inspired from French) as an alternative for the existing “Royal Highness” or “Grace”. In 1535 he proclaimed himself “Henry VIII, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith, Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in Earth Supreme Head”.
5. Religious persecution as reason for colonization (James I – 1603; Pilgrim Fathers - 1620)
1620 is conventionally known as the starting year for massive immigrations to Northern America. Previously, Sir Walter Raleigh's Roanoke colony arrived in Virginia in 1587 (with 120 colonists, of whom only 17 women). That same year (1587), the first American-English baby was born: her name was Virginia Dare, and she was actually named after the region where the settlement had taken place.
The religious reasons were the main cause for trying to leave England in search of a new life, far away from home:
- Puritan religious beliefs were considered intolerable under James I (a Catholic), who came to the throne of England after the death of Elizabeth I, in 1603
- Marriage was considered a civil affair, not a religious sacrament (to be handled by the state). Marriage was a “contract”, mutually agreed by man and woman, for procreation and avoidance of adultery.
- icons and religious symbols were rejected
- rejection of (Catholic) Church hierarchy
- no celebration for Christmas and Easter (celebrations “invented by man to remember Jesus”); no work on Sundays
The period which started with the symbolic year 1620 and ended with the fight for independence of the 1760s is commonly known as the “Colonial era”. Little by little, the colonists’ settlements grouped into the 13 British colonies which later formed the United States.
They had many things in common: the language (English, although Dutch could still be heard in certain parts of the British-held territory – for instance on the Island of Manhattan), various economic interests (e.g. the East India Company, the first private chartered company whose overseas rights were granted by the British Crown, set up a branch in Boston), the British Monarchy tradition and the acknowledged psychological and social force of a strong nation.
6. The concept of “revolution”
The modern concept of “revolution” seems to have its roots in the so-called “Glorious Revolution” of 1688, during the period when England was ruled by the Stuart family.
The 17th century frictions between the totalitarian kings and the Parliament reached their peak during the Civil War which saw Oliver Cromwell assume the power in the state after beheading king Charles I Stuart in 1649. But Cromwell’s new state only lasted until 1658 when, upon his death, the Parliament decided to invite Charles II to restore the monarchy and become king. From a historical point of view, this was the so-called Restoration.
Unfortunately, after having stayed in exile in France all through the period of Cromwell’s rule, Charles II had also learned the authoritarian ruling methods of Louis XIV (the French king who once said: “L’état c’est moi!”), that he was now ready to apply in England. This led to an even stronger discontent between the new king and the Parliament. Here are some of the issues separating the two powers of the state[1]:
- the King is above the law (Charles II) – vs. the King must abide by the law (Parliament);
- the King favoured Catholicism (under French influence), while the Parliament wished to continue the Protestant tradition
- the King saw France as an ally, while the Parliament saw it as the fiercest enemy
- the King wanted to have complete authority over tax collection and personal expenditures, while the Parliament considered that it should have the final decision in this matter
- the King ignored the judicial system and wanted to be the only one to decide punishments, while the Parliament considered that any impeachment should be made according to the law
Upon Charles’ death, his brother James II ascended to the throne, in spite of the Parliament’s protests, which were mainly religious in nature (he was also a Catholic). When the frictions between the King and the Parliament reached a new climax, members of the Parliament contacted James’s daughter Mary Stuart and her husband, William of Orange (the Dutch prince), proposing them to seize the throne. Eventually James II abdicated in 1689 and William of Orange and his wife started a co-reign on the throne of England.
It was the only time in the history of England when this happened. Usually, the wife or husband of the monarch is called a “consort” (“Prince consort” or “Queen consort”).
Legal consequence: in 1689, the Parliament passed the English Bill of Rights, the Toleration Act, and the Mutiny Act that collectively committed the monarchs to respect Parliament and Parliament's laws.
Financial consequence: the constitutional credibility of the English Parliament determined a renewed trust in the English currency. “The Glorious Revolution unleashed a revolution in public finance. The most prominent element was the introduction of long-run borrowing by the government, because such borrowing absolutely relied on the government's fiscal credibility.”[2]
“Credible government debt formed the basis of the Bank of England in 1694 and the core of the London stock market. The combination of these changes has been called the Financial Revolution and was essential for Britain's emergence as a Great Power in the eighteenth century.”[3]
7. The institution of the “Prime Minister” and his “cabinet”
The house of the Hanoverians included four kings by the name of George, and this is why this period is also known as “Georgian Britain”. It started in 1714 (when George I became a king) and ended in 1820 (when George III died). However, the Hanoverian ruling family produced two more monarchs: William IV and Victoria.
The Georgian period is remembered due to a series of facts that marked the cultural and historical development of Britain – as a country and as an empire:
a. GEORGE I (1714 - 1727) did not speak English so he could not rule properly, therefore he appointed trusted politicians to be responsible for all governing activities. These were the first “Prime Ministers” that Britain had and they grouped around them a number of politicians – the future “Cabinet” – to take care of various parts of the governing effort.
b. Due to irresponsible financial manoeuvring (the national debt in his time reached 31 million pounds) the stock market crashed and the government as well as thousands of investors were declared bankrupt. From 1720s on the Bank of England became officially responsible for the finances of the country and British economy became “the best managed” in Europe over the next centuries.
c. During the reign of GEORGE II (1727 – 1760) Prince Charles Stuart marched into England in an attempt to free Scotland (which had become part of Britain in 1707) and take the crown. He was eventually defeated but became a major Scottish hero, along with Mary Stuart.
d. Social stability was at a high level. The system was focused on protecting the landlords’ interests while the exercise of influence worked in the relationships with the other social layers.
e. The British Museum was founded in 1753, first based on the collections of Sir Hans Sloane and Sir Robert Cotton, to which the earls of Oxford added their personal library. The Royal Library, founded by Henry VII also became a part of the British Museum.
f. A “Seven Years War” with France began during his reign (1755) and ended during the reign of George III (1763). The war resulted in new territories being added to the British Empire (in Canada, Florida, Grenada, Senegal and East of the Mississippi River). The Indian sub-continent also became a territory exclusively administered by the British (France had also had interests there). The East India Company became the most important trade company in the area, bringing all kinds of products to Britain.
g. GEORGE III (1760 – 1820) was insane and often proved unfit to rule. During his reign the American colonies broke with the British rule and became independent after the Revolution (1775-1783).
h. Also during his reign Ireland was officially unified with Great Britain (1801), which turned Great Britain into the United Kingdom.
i. Horatio Nelson became a national hero after the naval victories over Napoleon (the Battle of the Nile – 1798 and Trafalgar – 1805). Nelson actually died at Trafalgar. Another national hero was Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington who managed to defeat Napoleon at Waterloo (near Brussels) in 1815.
j. The industrial development led to protests from blue-collar workers, but the new steam-driven machines nevertheless were adopted in all industrial areas due to their efficiency and working speed. This was in fact the period of the EARLY INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, and one of the causes for its impact was the approval of laws (Acts) by which landowners introduced improved farming methods and machines, forcing many of the farm workers to move to town, where they became the work force that implemented the Industrial Revolution.
k. In 1810 George III was officially proclaimed “unfit to rule” and his son George was appointed Regent (until 1820). He was an extravagant, heavy drinker, women-lover, impulsive ruler but his passion for expensive, finely decorated architecture resulted in remarkable buildings such as the Brighton Pavilion (on the Channel coast). He finally became king in 1820 and ruled until 1830 as GEORGE IV.
l. During his rule the first regular police force was established in London.
m. The Catholic Emancipation Bill of 1829 gave Catholics the right to vote, become members of Parliament and hold public office. The electoral reform was also on its way.
Upon the death of George IV in 1830 his brother became king William IV as the next in line and in 1837 he was followed by Queen Victoria (1837 – 1901) – a time when the British Empire reached its peak.
8. Human rights – Charters of Freedom (USA)
See http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration.html for a detailed presentation of the main documents
The fundamental Acts of the USA are the Declaration of Independence (although not a part of the legal system, it the most important symbol of liberty for all Americans), the Constitution (the supreme law) and the Bill of Rights – all of whom are known as the Charters of Freedom. In fact, the American legal system was originally derived from the system of English law, which was in force in the colonies at the time of the Revolution.[4]
The specificity of US law is that, apart from federal laws (inspired from the Constitution, and which are in force in all 50 states) there is also a system of local laws, applicable in each state only. The 50 American states are considered “separate sovereigns”, which have their own constitutions and have the right to pass their own laws, as seen fit by local authorities.
Various attempts have been made, along the years, to unify these state laws, but with only few positive results. Two examples of uniform laws are the Model Penal Code (a project of the American Law Institute) and the Uniform Commercial Code.
The Declaration of Independence (4th July 1776) was voted “the most influential document in American history” (75.9% during a Government survey which took place in 2002).
The original, faded document (engrossed on parchment) is now exhibited in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom, at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., along with the originals of the Constitution and of the Bill of Rights, in specially sealed encasements, meant to protect them from decay.
There are also a number of 25 official copies on paper known today – of the 200 initially engraved from a stone plate (20 owned by American institutions, 2 by British institutions and 3 by private owners).
The first section of the body of the Declaration gives evidence of the "long train of abuses and usurpations" heaped upon the colonists by King George III. The second section of the body states that the colonists had appealed in vain to their "British brethren" for a redress of their grievances.
The Declaration concludes that "these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved.”
The Constitution of the United States (1787) is the oldest Federal constitution in existence, and it was conceived by the delegates of 12 of the 13 original states. It is the major legal document of the US. It was ratified by all 13 states (including New York) until late 1788, but with promises of several amendments.
Reason for being written: after 11 years of independence, the new state was confronted with economic depression, social unrest and rivalries between different states. In early 1787, the US Congress asked all 13 states to revise the Articles of Confederation. Following a number of secret meetings (regarding some essential issues, such as: how much power to allow the central government, how many representatives in Congress to allow each state, and how these representatives should be elected - directly by the people or by the state legislators), the US Constitution was ready, and it was intended as an entirely new plan of Government: a central Government made of 3 branches (legislative, executive and judicial) which are thus organised as to balance each other.
The Bill of Rights (presented by President George Washington in 1789 and ratified by 9 of the 13 states by the end of 1791) included a number of 12 amendments, of the 17 initially proposed by the Congress. Ten of these were approved, and they were made known to all under the name of Bill of Rights.
The reason for further legal provisions was the fact that anti-federalists had constantly attacked the Constitution as being too vague; they also protested against the fact that it did not make any specific mention regarding the ways in which the state would be protected against tyranny. Civil rights, such as the freedom of speech, the freedom of the press, the freedom of assembly, or the right to a fair and speedy trial had not been included in the original text of the Constitution.
The American Revolution has a number of specific features in comparison with the revolutions which took place in Europe, starting with the end of the 18th century: it was positive in motivation and goals; it did not justify mass killing of the enemy according to ideological reasons (as did the French Revolution of 1789); it opened the way for a modern understanding of human relationships and of the laws governing them; it consecrated the role of a Constitution which should be observed by all; it started from the assumption that “all men are born equal”.
9. Industrial revolution
The beginnings of the industrial revolution are closely linked to Britain under the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901).
It was a time of inventions, reforms and deep social changes. Specific laws were passed with the purpose of implementing political and social reform.
The success of the 1851 World Fair (the first world exhibition of manufactured goods) resulted in Victoria’s reign being called the “Victorian Age”. During her reign, Britain became the greatest colonial power in the world, and statistics estimate that one in four inhabitants of any part of the world was a British subject. Victoria herself was declared Empress of India – a title which remained linked to the British Crown until the emancipation of the Indian sub-continent, followed by the formation of newly-independent states India and Pakistan in the late 1920s.
In the same period, Britain also became the first urban industrial society in history. Urbanization in Britain meant that large numbers of people moved from rural to urban areas due to industrialization (by 1900 80% of the population lived in cities). This deep social change determined an increased importance of the bourgeoisie, at the expense of aristocratic landlords; thus, Britain completed its shift from a feudal system to a modern, industrialized society.
Great inventions paved the way for further modernization: 1825 – the first steam locomotive (made by George Stephenson, who called it a “rocket”). The development of faster transport means (railways) led to an increase of exchanges of goods and of individual consumption.
Britain was also the country which saw the beginnings of the Trade Unions (inspired from the mediaeval guilds) – which were legalized in 1871; by 1890 there were 1.5 M trade union members – a foundation for the modern Labour Party.
A major trend in Victorian Britain was the importance of learning under state guidance: after 1870 education became compulsory for all children.
10. Women’s rights (the Suffragette movement)
It took a long time until women’s working capacities were fully recognised and trusted. The trained English nurses of the Boer War (1899-1902) were those who called everyone’s attention to the fact that women were deprived of many well deserved rights – among which, the right to vote.
Although a formal military nursing service did not exist in the army prior to the latter half of the 19th century, recent extensive research suggests that nursing care was provided to the army during the reign of Elizabeth 1st and the English Civil War. During the 18th century military hospitals had Matrons and nurses working in them but the training and standard of care was not of a high standard.
At the same time, in the US, during the early nineteenth century, women participated in numerous efforts to improve women's status, defend their interests, and increase their rights. Educators, such as Emma Willard, Mary Lyon, and Catharine Beecher, promoted advanced training for women in female academies and seminaries. Thousands of women in the 1830s and 1840s joined moral reform societies, organized especially in protest of women being used for prostitution.
The first women's rights meeting, at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848, capitalized on women's antislavery experience. Called by Mott and Stanton, who had met at an 1840 antislavery convention in London, and some Quaker friends, the convention attracted about three hundred women and men. One-third of the participants signed a "Declaration of Sentiments," modelled on the Declaration of Independence.
In 1919, the US Congress at last approved woman suffrage and in August 1920, the Nineteenth Amendment (women’s right to vote) was ratified by the states.
The word "suffragette" was first used to describe women campaigning for the right to vote in an article in a British newspaper in 1906.
At the time, only two-thirds of the male population could vote.
Those who could not vote included:
- men who did not own property or pay at least £10/year in rent- servants who lived with their employers- criminals- “lunatics” (individuals who were officially deemed crazy)
British women and men had been arguing for both universal and women’s suffrage since the 1860s. The movement for women’s votes accelerated when Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters Christabel and Sylvia founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) in 1903 – a more radical organization than some of the earlier ones fighting for suffrage. Its slogan was "Deeds Not Words".
On 2 July 1928, a law was passed allowing all women over the age of 21 to vote. Many people said that the Act was passed as a reward for women’s efforts during the war rather than anything the suffragettes did.
[1] See Quinn’s article about the “Glorious Revolution” at http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/quinn.revolution.1688
[2] Ibidem, page 5
[3] Neal, Larry. "How it All Began: the Monetary and Financial Architecture of Europe during the First Global Capital Markets, 1648-1815." Financial History Review 7 (2000): 117-40
[4] For more details about the US law, see Law of the United States, in Wikipedia, the free Encyclopaedia
vineri, 18 ianuarie 2008
Preston- churchmen’s residence, celebrations’s town
· Introduction
I’ve chosen Preston because it’s not an average town that you hear talking about every day as many others in UK: London, Liverpool, Manchester. It’s an unheard of, a hidden one, but, in my opinion, non of the less important. In fact, Preston takes a great pride in its people and celebrates its cultural diversity with an all year round events programme.
For example, the unique Easter Egg Rolling event, which many may consider excentric, but gives Preston a certain charm.Other examples: the colourful Caribbean Carnival and the Preston Mela, Festival of South Asian Culture.
· Short description
Located on the River Ribble, like an young child, Preston is a new town, receiving the status of a city in 2002, becoming England's 50th city in the 50th year of Queen Elizabeth II's reign, therefore it’s importancy.
Besides this, Preston has a strong Christian (particularly Catholic) history and tradition. The word Preston derived from 'Priests town' and the Lamb on the city emblem is a Biblical image of Jesus Christ. It’s certainly true that we can not find any other city with a Biblical image of Jesus Christ as its emblem which hosts so many celebrations, events and has a such vibrante night life.
· History
Preston in times past
Preston was a borough, market-town and parish situated to the north of the river Ribble; and is said to have risen from the ruins of an ancient city, called Ribchester (which is now an inconsiderable village in the neighbourhood), and to take its name, Priest-town,being the residence of considerable numbers of churchmen.
During the history, Preston’s architecture changed considerably.
Firstly, Preston was established as a port at the head of the estuary of the River Ribble. It became important from Roman times as a river crossing and rich from the weaving of wool in the Middle Ages.
John Horrocks established the first cotton mill in Preston in 1786. The first railway in the town was built in 1803 to connect the southern and northern sections of the Lancaster Canal. This was followed by a short railway between the quarries of Longridge to Preston.
Preston had been first represented in Parliament in 1295. Unlike most boroughs, the right to vote in parliamentary elections had been granted to all inhabitants of the town.
Preston continued to develop and in 1838 the National Union Railway linked Preston to London, Liverpool and Manchester. These lines were eventually obtained by the Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway. This increased economic activity and between 1801 and 1901, the population of Preston increased from 14,000 to 115,000.
Secondly, a specific characteristic is the Guild Merchant. Every 20th year a guild merchant, or kind of jubilee, is held here, which begins in the last week of August, and formerly continued a month. The right to hold a Guild Merchant was conferred upon the Burgesses of Preston by a charter of 1179. Such a celebration had been held from time to time, but at the one in 1328 it was decreed that the Guild should be held every twenty years. There were breaks in this pattern for various reasons, but an unbroken series of them were held from 1542 to 1922. The 400 year sequence was broken due to World War II, but resumed in 1952. Therefore the expression '(Once) every Preston Guild', meaning 'very infrequently', has passed into fairly common use, especially in Lancashire.
The guild-hall, a handsome building, built of brick, stands in the centre of the town, near the Market-place, and fronts Fishergate, containing a news-room and council-chamber, together with the court-room for trying causes cognizable in the town, and used as the husting for the purpose of receiving votes for electing members of parliament; the new cupola is built of freestone, and is a superior piece of architecture, surmounting a pedestal, which supports its massy head, consisting of four Ionic pilasters at each angle; upon the base, between the pilasters, are laticed windows, formed with mouldings, after the Norman style, with round heads; and above this, next the cornice, a clock appears, with four dials facing the four cardinal points; the cap of the cupola is mounted by a vane of gilt-work, representing the figure of a lamb couchant.
On another hand, there is an astonishing diversity of public structures. The public structures devoted to the purposes of religious worship are, the ancient church of St. Johns (formerly St.Wilfrids), which is a vicarage, in the patronage of Sir Henry Philip Hoghton, and incumbency of the Rev. Roger Carus Wilson; St. Georges chapel, the present minister of which is the Rev. R. Harris; Trinity church, in the incumbency of the Rev. Thomas Raven; St. Peters, the Rev. R. Henry; and St. Pauls, the Rev. B. Russell. There are several societies in Preston for promoting religion, and affording relief to the poor both in age and sickness; amongst these may be included Bible, tract, and missionary societies; dispensaries, alms-houses, a benevolent society; several provident institutions or benefit societies.
The charitable institutions for the promotion of education are, the free grammar-school, an ancient foundation, under the patronage of the corporation; the blue-coat school, national school, catholic school, methodist school, and various Sunday-schools; the latter excellent establishments educating upwards of 3,000 children.
· Preston Today
From a town which promoted religion, with such a representative name („Priest-town”) today it became the administrative, commercial, industrial and cultural centre of Lancashire; there is also a wide range of educational and leisure opportunities and facilities. The University of Central Lancashire based in the centre of Preston is now an important feature of the town with over 15,000 students and now probably the biggest employer in the town.
The town has a wonderful collection of art and sculptures housed in the magnificent Harris Museum & Art Gallery building of Greek Revival architecture.
There is a large selection of restaurants with international cuisine, pubs, clubs, entertainment venues and night-life. There is the towns entertainment centre, the Guild Hall & Charter Theatre which is home to major events, concerts and theatre productions. There are two multi-screen cinemas, leisure centres, golf clubs, museums, Preston North End football club, Preston Grasshoppers Rugby football club and many more attractions, so there is always something of interest for folk day or night.
· Industrial Revolution
Half a century ago Preston could not be noted as a manufacturing town, and for ages previous it was more remarkable for the residence of independent persons, and its claims to gentility, than to the production of articles deemed so essentially necessary to adorn the rich and clothe all ranks. The rapid strides of science and art, rendered subservient to machinery and manufactures in general, have of late years overtaken and included Preston amongst the manufacturing towns of Lancashire: the cotton-trade is now carried on to a very considerable extent; and although it labours under the disadvantage of being at a material distance from the coal-mines, yet the central situation of the town, and the united advantages of river and canal navigation, joining with the skill, capital and enterprize of the principal manufactuers, have placed Preston in a more conspicuous and elevated point of view, than at the period when trade was only carried on within it for local convenience. With the aid of spring tides, which flow higher than the bridge at Wolton, vessels of 150 tons burden can navigate the Ribble as far as the quay at Preston-marsh; but this river is capable of much improvement. In the Ribble is a very ancient fishery, belonging to the borough of Preston, within the boundary of its jurisdiction; and it is famous for salmon, smelts, plaice and eels.
The principal market-place is a spacious well paved square, in the centre of which is an obelisk, surmounted by a large glass vase, lighted at night with gas, which illuminates the whole area. The chief market is held on Saturday; but there are also markets on Wednesday and Friday, for fish, butter and vegetables.
However, the 19th century saw a transformation in Preston from a small market town to a much larger industrial one, as the innovations of the latter half of the previous century such as Richard Arkwright's water frame (invented in Preston) brought cotton mills to many northern English towns. With industrialisation came examples of both oppression and enlightenment.
The town's forward-looking spirit is typified by it being the first English town outside London to be lit by gas. The Preston Gas Company was established in 1815 by, amongst others, a Catholic priest: Fr. Joseph "Daddy" Dunn of the Society of Jesus.
The more oppressive side of industrialisation was seen on Saturday 13 August 1842, when a group of cotton workers demonstrated against the poor conditions in the town's mills. The Riot Act was read and armed troops corralled the demonstrators in front of the Corn Exchange on Lune Street. Shots were fired and four of the demonstrators were killed. A commemorative sculpture now stands on the spot (although the soldiers and demonstrators represented are facing the wrong way). In the 1850s, Karl Marx visited Preston and later described the town as "the next St. Petersburg".
Preston was one of only a few industrial towns in Lancashire to have a functioning corporation (local council) in 1835, its charter dating to 1685, and was reformed as a municipal borough by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. It became a county borough under the Local Government Act 1888. In 1974, county boroughs were abolished, and it became the larger part of the new non-metropolitan district of Preston in Lancashire, also including Fulwood, Lancashire and part of Preston Rural District.
· Notable people from Preston
To proove it’s interest for culture and importance of the education, Preston gave many notable people to the world.
Heres’s a list with some of the most famous names in Preston’s history:
· Richard Arkwright (1732–1792) — inventor of the water frame that kick-started the textile industry in the late 18th century
· Professor Sir George Grenfell Baines, OBE (1908–2003) — Architect, pioneer of multi-disciplinary design and founder of the Building Design Partnership
· Kenny Baker (born 1934) — an actor who plays R2D2 in Star Wars.
· Roy Barraclough (born 1935) — Actor from Coronation Street
· Stephen Barton (born 1982) — Noted film composer and protege of Harry Gregson-Williams
· Eddie Calvert (1922–1978) — Trumpeter, "The Man With the Golden Horn"
· Gregory Doran (born 1958) — Associate Director, Royal Shakespeare Company.
· John Doyle (born 1979) Flugel Horn for the world Famous Black Dyke band, and widely regarded as the finest Flugel Horn Player in the world.
· Aaron Dore (born 1991) Proud Professional Signature & LP Designer, Tutorial & PSD Packs Creator Known Web-Wide.
· Paul Englishby — film and theater composer
· Sir Tom Finney (born 1922) — Footballer
· Andrew Flintoff (born 1977) — cricketer
· Zara Glover (born 1982) — International Ten-pin Bowler
· James Hebblethwaite (1857–1921) — poet
· John Inman (1935–2007) — Comedy actor and drag artiste
· Ian Kirkham — saxophone player, Simply Red.
· Mark Lawrenson (born 1957) — Footballer turned football pundit
· Joseph Livesey (1794–1884) — Social reformer and pioneer of the Temperance movement in the 19th century
· Ian McCulloch (born 1971) — snooker player currently in the top 16 of the world rankings
· Marie Niven (b.1964) famous mainly for being a famous maths teacher at Hutton Grammar School.
· Nick Park (born 1958) — animator famous mainly for the Wallace and Gromit and Chicken Run claymation animation classics.
· Edith Rigby (1872–1948) — Suffragette
· Samuel Ryder (1858–1936) — founder of the Ryder Cup Golf Competition
· Dr Alison Shaw, Ph.D. (born 1975) — publisher of "A general approach for heterologous membrane protein expression in Escherichia coli: the uncoupling protein, UCP1, as an example", aka "the hedgehog protein one" ([1])
· Chris Scott (born 1991) Keyboard player with Odd Socks, Lancaster based fourth wave Ska band.
· A.J.P. Taylor (1906–1990) — historian.
· Jessica Taylor (born 1980) singer with Liberty X
· Francis Thompson (1859–1907) — poet
· John Thomson (born 1969) — actor, Men Behaving Badly
· Stanley Yates (born 1958) — classical guitarist and music scholar
· Buildings and structures in PrestonCulturally, Preston has much to be proud about including - the Grade I listed Harris Museum and Art Gallery, Preston Guild Hall, Museum of Lancashire, the County Records Office and Library, splendid Victorian Parks & Gardens, as well as the National Football Museum and St Walburge's Church.
St Walburge's Church is a Roman Catholic church located in Preston, Lancashire, England. It is dedicated to Saint Walpurga and is a Grade I listed building.
It is one of the tallest buildings of any type in Lancashire, with a steeple or spire of 309 feet (94 m). It is the fifth-tallest church in the United Kingdom, after Salisbury Cathedral, St Paul's Cathedral, Liverpool Cathedral and Norwich Cathedral, and therefore the tallest church that is not a cathedral.
The steeple is constructed from limestone sleepers which originally carried the nearby Preston to Longridge railway line, giving the spire a red tint during sunset. The steeple was the last to be worked upon by steeplejack and TV personality Fred Dibnah.
The architect was Joseph Hansom. Work began on the construction of the church in May 1850, and it was completed for an opening ceremony on August 3, 1854.
The church resembles a cathedral and holds a commanding position over Preston city. The tower contains a single bell of 30 Cwt (1.5 Tonnes) cast by Mears and Stainbank of Whitechapel. This is thought to be the heaviest swinging bell in Lancashire.
The Harris Museum, Art Gallery & Preston Free Public Library is a Grade I listed museum building in Preston and has the largest gallery space in Lancashire, England. The collections include important local history and archaeology collections, highlights of which are displayed in the Story of Preston, which gives a historical account of the city. There is also a fine art collection including work by Stanley Spencer, Lucian Freud, Ivon Hitchens and Graham Sutherland and a decorative art collection that holds the largest scent bottle collection in the country. In addition there is a varied contemporary art programme of national and international artists, touring shows and in-house exhibitions.
Amongst the fine works of art and historical artefacts there is a nationally important prehistoric elk skeleton, known as the Poulton Elk.
A Foucault pendulum hangs in the central foyer, through all the floors, over a butterfly-shaped plate marked with the hours of the day. As a result of the rotation of the Earth, this functions as a decorative and reasonably-accurate clock.
This monumental building also houses Preston City's Free Public Library, which is run by Lancashire County Council, and the building was initially built with funds donated by Edmund Robert Harris.
· Conclusion: Preston's history dates back to the Doomsday Book and to 1179 with the granting of the Charter, which gave the right to hold a Guild Merchant every 20 years. The "Once in a Preston Guild" tradition continues to this day and we look forward to the next in 2012. Preston, the administrative capital of Lancashire, is the largest and most important commercial centre in the county.
Preston's colourful history has shaped today's town.The future in the town of Preston is looking very good because of its transport system and its shopping centres.
I’ve chosen Preston because it’s not an average town that you hear talking about every day as many others in UK: London, Liverpool, Manchester. It’s an unheard of, a hidden one, but, in my opinion, non of the less important. In fact, Preston takes a great pride in its people and celebrates its cultural diversity with an all year round events programme.
For example, the unique Easter Egg Rolling event, which many may consider excentric, but gives Preston a certain charm.Other examples: the colourful Caribbean Carnival and the Preston Mela, Festival of South Asian Culture.
· Short description
Located on the River Ribble, like an young child, Preston is a new town, receiving the status of a city in 2002, becoming England's 50th city in the 50th year of Queen Elizabeth II's reign, therefore it’s importancy.
Besides this, Preston has a strong Christian (particularly Catholic) history and tradition. The word Preston derived from 'Priests town' and the Lamb on the city emblem is a Biblical image of Jesus Christ. It’s certainly true that we can not find any other city with a Biblical image of Jesus Christ as its emblem which hosts so many celebrations, events and has a such vibrante night life.
· History
Preston in times past
Preston was a borough, market-town and parish situated to the north of the river Ribble; and is said to have risen from the ruins of an ancient city, called Ribchester (which is now an inconsiderable village in the neighbourhood), and to take its name, Priest-town,being the residence of considerable numbers of churchmen.
During the history, Preston’s architecture changed considerably.
Firstly, Preston was established as a port at the head of the estuary of the River Ribble. It became important from Roman times as a river crossing and rich from the weaving of wool in the Middle Ages.
John Horrocks established the first cotton mill in Preston in 1786. The first railway in the town was built in 1803 to connect the southern and northern sections of the Lancaster Canal. This was followed by a short railway between the quarries of Longridge to Preston.
Preston had been first represented in Parliament in 1295. Unlike most boroughs, the right to vote in parliamentary elections had been granted to all inhabitants of the town.
Preston continued to develop and in 1838 the National Union Railway linked Preston to London, Liverpool and Manchester. These lines were eventually obtained by the Lancashire & Yorkshire Railway. This increased economic activity and between 1801 and 1901, the population of Preston increased from 14,000 to 115,000.
Secondly, a specific characteristic is the Guild Merchant. Every 20th year a guild merchant, or kind of jubilee, is held here, which begins in the last week of August, and formerly continued a month. The right to hold a Guild Merchant was conferred upon the Burgesses of Preston by a charter of 1179. Such a celebration had been held from time to time, but at the one in 1328 it was decreed that the Guild should be held every twenty years. There were breaks in this pattern for various reasons, but an unbroken series of them were held from 1542 to 1922. The 400 year sequence was broken due to World War II, but resumed in 1952. Therefore the expression '(Once) every Preston Guild', meaning 'very infrequently', has passed into fairly common use, especially in Lancashire.
The guild-hall, a handsome building, built of brick, stands in the centre of the town, near the Market-place, and fronts Fishergate, containing a news-room and council-chamber, together with the court-room for trying causes cognizable in the town, and used as the husting for the purpose of receiving votes for electing members of parliament; the new cupola is built of freestone, and is a superior piece of architecture, surmounting a pedestal, which supports its massy head, consisting of four Ionic pilasters at each angle; upon the base, between the pilasters, are laticed windows, formed with mouldings, after the Norman style, with round heads; and above this, next the cornice, a clock appears, with four dials facing the four cardinal points; the cap of the cupola is mounted by a vane of gilt-work, representing the figure of a lamb couchant.
On another hand, there is an astonishing diversity of public structures. The public structures devoted to the purposes of religious worship are, the ancient church of St. Johns (formerly St.Wilfrids), which is a vicarage, in the patronage of Sir Henry Philip Hoghton, and incumbency of the Rev. Roger Carus Wilson; St. Georges chapel, the present minister of which is the Rev. R. Harris; Trinity church, in the incumbency of the Rev. Thomas Raven; St. Peters, the Rev. R. Henry; and St. Pauls, the Rev. B. Russell. There are several societies in Preston for promoting religion, and affording relief to the poor both in age and sickness; amongst these may be included Bible, tract, and missionary societies; dispensaries, alms-houses, a benevolent society; several provident institutions or benefit societies.
The charitable institutions for the promotion of education are, the free grammar-school, an ancient foundation, under the patronage of the corporation; the blue-coat school, national school, catholic school, methodist school, and various Sunday-schools; the latter excellent establishments educating upwards of 3,000 children.
· Preston Today
From a town which promoted religion, with such a representative name („Priest-town”) today it became the administrative, commercial, industrial and cultural centre of Lancashire; there is also a wide range of educational and leisure opportunities and facilities. The University of Central Lancashire based in the centre of Preston is now an important feature of the town with over 15,000 students and now probably the biggest employer in the town.
The town has a wonderful collection of art and sculptures housed in the magnificent Harris Museum & Art Gallery building of Greek Revival architecture.
There is a large selection of restaurants with international cuisine, pubs, clubs, entertainment venues and night-life. There is the towns entertainment centre, the Guild Hall & Charter Theatre which is home to major events, concerts and theatre productions. There are two multi-screen cinemas, leisure centres, golf clubs, museums, Preston North End football club, Preston Grasshoppers Rugby football club and many more attractions, so there is always something of interest for folk day or night.
· Industrial Revolution
Half a century ago Preston could not be noted as a manufacturing town, and for ages previous it was more remarkable for the residence of independent persons, and its claims to gentility, than to the production of articles deemed so essentially necessary to adorn the rich and clothe all ranks. The rapid strides of science and art, rendered subservient to machinery and manufactures in general, have of late years overtaken and included Preston amongst the manufacturing towns of Lancashire: the cotton-trade is now carried on to a very considerable extent; and although it labours under the disadvantage of being at a material distance from the coal-mines, yet the central situation of the town, and the united advantages of river and canal navigation, joining with the skill, capital and enterprize of the principal manufactuers, have placed Preston in a more conspicuous and elevated point of view, than at the period when trade was only carried on within it for local convenience. With the aid of spring tides, which flow higher than the bridge at Wolton, vessels of 150 tons burden can navigate the Ribble as far as the quay at Preston-marsh; but this river is capable of much improvement. In the Ribble is a very ancient fishery, belonging to the borough of Preston, within the boundary of its jurisdiction; and it is famous for salmon, smelts, plaice and eels.
The principal market-place is a spacious well paved square, in the centre of which is an obelisk, surmounted by a large glass vase, lighted at night with gas, which illuminates the whole area. The chief market is held on Saturday; but there are also markets on Wednesday and Friday, for fish, butter and vegetables.
However, the 19th century saw a transformation in Preston from a small market town to a much larger industrial one, as the innovations of the latter half of the previous century such as Richard Arkwright's water frame (invented in Preston) brought cotton mills to many northern English towns. With industrialisation came examples of both oppression and enlightenment.
The town's forward-looking spirit is typified by it being the first English town outside London to be lit by gas. The Preston Gas Company was established in 1815 by, amongst others, a Catholic priest: Fr. Joseph "Daddy" Dunn of the Society of Jesus.
The more oppressive side of industrialisation was seen on Saturday 13 August 1842, when a group of cotton workers demonstrated against the poor conditions in the town's mills. The Riot Act was read and armed troops corralled the demonstrators in front of the Corn Exchange on Lune Street. Shots were fired and four of the demonstrators were killed. A commemorative sculpture now stands on the spot (although the soldiers and demonstrators represented are facing the wrong way). In the 1850s, Karl Marx visited Preston and later described the town as "the next St. Petersburg".
Preston was one of only a few industrial towns in Lancashire to have a functioning corporation (local council) in 1835, its charter dating to 1685, and was reformed as a municipal borough by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835. It became a county borough under the Local Government Act 1888. In 1974, county boroughs were abolished, and it became the larger part of the new non-metropolitan district of Preston in Lancashire, also including Fulwood, Lancashire and part of Preston Rural District.
· Notable people from Preston
To proove it’s interest for culture and importance of the education, Preston gave many notable people to the world.
Heres’s a list with some of the most famous names in Preston’s history:
· Richard Arkwright (1732–1792) — inventor of the water frame that kick-started the textile industry in the late 18th century
· Professor Sir George Grenfell Baines, OBE (1908–2003) — Architect, pioneer of multi-disciplinary design and founder of the Building Design Partnership
· Kenny Baker (born 1934) — an actor who plays R2D2 in Star Wars.
· Roy Barraclough (born 1935) — Actor from Coronation Street
· Stephen Barton (born 1982) — Noted film composer and protege of Harry Gregson-Williams
· Eddie Calvert (1922–1978) — Trumpeter, "The Man With the Golden Horn"
· Gregory Doran (born 1958) — Associate Director, Royal Shakespeare Company.
· John Doyle (born 1979) Flugel Horn for the world Famous Black Dyke band, and widely regarded as the finest Flugel Horn Player in the world.
· Aaron Dore (born 1991) Proud Professional Signature & LP Designer, Tutorial & PSD Packs Creator Known Web-Wide.
· Paul Englishby — film and theater composer
· Sir Tom Finney (born 1922) — Footballer
· Andrew Flintoff (born 1977) — cricketer
· Zara Glover (born 1982) — International Ten-pin Bowler
· James Hebblethwaite (1857–1921) — poet
· John Inman (1935–2007) — Comedy actor and drag artiste
· Ian Kirkham — saxophone player, Simply Red.
· Mark Lawrenson (born 1957) — Footballer turned football pundit
· Joseph Livesey (1794–1884) — Social reformer and pioneer of the Temperance movement in the 19th century
· Ian McCulloch (born 1971) — snooker player currently in the top 16 of the world rankings
· Marie Niven (b.1964) famous mainly for being a famous maths teacher at Hutton Grammar School.
· Nick Park (born 1958) — animator famous mainly for the Wallace and Gromit and Chicken Run claymation animation classics.
· Edith Rigby (1872–1948) — Suffragette
· Samuel Ryder (1858–1936) — founder of the Ryder Cup Golf Competition
· Dr Alison Shaw, Ph.D. (born 1975) — publisher of "A general approach for heterologous membrane protein expression in Escherichia coli: the uncoupling protein, UCP1, as an example", aka "the hedgehog protein one" ([1])
· Chris Scott (born 1991) Keyboard player with Odd Socks, Lancaster based fourth wave Ska band.
· A.J.P. Taylor (1906–1990) — historian.
· Jessica Taylor (born 1980) singer with Liberty X
· Francis Thompson (1859–1907) — poet
· John Thomson (born 1969) — actor, Men Behaving Badly
· Stanley Yates (born 1958) — classical guitarist and music scholar
· Buildings and structures in PrestonCulturally, Preston has much to be proud about including - the Grade I listed Harris Museum and Art Gallery, Preston Guild Hall, Museum of Lancashire, the County Records Office and Library, splendid Victorian Parks & Gardens, as well as the National Football Museum and St Walburge's Church.
St Walburge's Church is a Roman Catholic church located in Preston, Lancashire, England. It is dedicated to Saint Walpurga and is a Grade I listed building.
It is one of the tallest buildings of any type in Lancashire, with a steeple or spire of 309 feet (94 m). It is the fifth-tallest church in the United Kingdom, after Salisbury Cathedral, St Paul's Cathedral, Liverpool Cathedral and Norwich Cathedral, and therefore the tallest church that is not a cathedral.
The steeple is constructed from limestone sleepers which originally carried the nearby Preston to Longridge railway line, giving the spire a red tint during sunset. The steeple was the last to be worked upon by steeplejack and TV personality Fred Dibnah.
The architect was Joseph Hansom. Work began on the construction of the church in May 1850, and it was completed for an opening ceremony on August 3, 1854.
The church resembles a cathedral and holds a commanding position over Preston city. The tower contains a single bell of 30 Cwt (1.5 Tonnes) cast by Mears and Stainbank of Whitechapel. This is thought to be the heaviest swinging bell in Lancashire.
The Harris Museum, Art Gallery & Preston Free Public Library is a Grade I listed museum building in Preston and has the largest gallery space in Lancashire, England. The collections include important local history and archaeology collections, highlights of which are displayed in the Story of Preston, which gives a historical account of the city. There is also a fine art collection including work by Stanley Spencer, Lucian Freud, Ivon Hitchens and Graham Sutherland and a decorative art collection that holds the largest scent bottle collection in the country. In addition there is a varied contemporary art programme of national and international artists, touring shows and in-house exhibitions.
Amongst the fine works of art and historical artefacts there is a nationally important prehistoric elk skeleton, known as the Poulton Elk.
A Foucault pendulum hangs in the central foyer, through all the floors, over a butterfly-shaped plate marked with the hours of the day. As a result of the rotation of the Earth, this functions as a decorative and reasonably-accurate clock.
This monumental building also houses Preston City's Free Public Library, which is run by Lancashire County Council, and the building was initially built with funds donated by Edmund Robert Harris.
· Conclusion: Preston's history dates back to the Doomsday Book and to 1179 with the granting of the Charter, which gave the right to hold a Guild Merchant every 20 years. The "Once in a Preston Guild" tradition continues to this day and we look forward to the next in 2012. Preston, the administrative capital of Lancashire, is the largest and most important commercial centre in the county.
Preston's colourful history has shaped today's town.The future in the town of Preston is looking very good because of its transport system and its shopping centres.
INFLUENTA LIMBII ENGLEZE IN LIMBA ROMANA ACTUALA
Limba romana este o limba vorbita de aproximativ 28 de milioane de oameni, cu origine romanica si foarte similara cu italiana, franceza, portugheza sau spaniola.
Istoria ei poate fi urmarita pe parcursul unor anumite perioade istorice pe care le-a traversat. Spre exemplu, cu 2000 de ani in urma, teritoriul de astăzi al Romaniei a fost locuit de daci ale caror preocupari includeau agricultura, viticultura sau crescutul animalelor. Au ramas din acea perioada cateva cuvinte legate de corpul omenesc si relatiile familiale(cap, mana, picior). Insa dacii nu sunt unicii stramosi ai romanilor si a limbii romane. Romanii au jucat un rol important in istoria si dezvoltarea limbii romane atunci cand i-au asimilat pe daci incetul cu incetul.
Un al exemplu este cel al slavilor care de-a lungul secolelor VII, VIII şi IX, slavii au venit pe teritoriul actualei Romanii. Limba lor a influentat limba romana dar slavii au invatat si ei limba latina. Limba slava a influentat limba romana mult in pronuntie ceea ce se vede mai clar in iodizarea sau palatizarea lui "e" la inceputul cuvintelor ca "el", "ea" sau "este".
In prezent, limba romana este foarte influentata de franceza si de engleza. Totusi, in ciuda influentelor primite, limba romana si-a pastrat originea romanica.
Vocabularul(lexicul) limbii romane este format din: vocabularul fundamental si masa vocabularului.
Vocabularul fundamental cuprinde circa 1500 de cuvinte din cele mai uzuale: numele unor obiecte si actiuni foarte importante(casa, masa), numele unor alimente, numele partilor corpului omenesc(mana, picior), numele unor culori importante, numele unor familii si ale unor rude, cele mai bine reprezentate in vocabular fiind cuvintele de legatura, pronumele, numeralele.
Masa vocabularului cuprinde 90% din totalitatea cuvintelor existente in limba romana: arhaisme(chezasie=garantie), regionalisme(cucuruz=porumb), termeni de argou(polonic=bucatar), termeni de jargon(merci). Este foarte bine stiut faptul ca limba este in continua schimbare, schimbare aparuta in primul rand datorita dezvoltarii tehnologice si economice. Fiecare epoca a avut neologismele sale: slavonisme (cuvinte intrate in limba in special prin traducerile de carti bisericesti), grecisme, turcisme (in perioada fanariota), ungurisme (mai ales in perioada stapanirii austro-ungare in Transilvania), frantuzisme (mai ales în epoca moderna), anglicisme si americanisme mai recent.
Luand drept exemplu influenta limbii engleze, primul fapt demn de mentionat este ca vorbim de un fenomen international (nu numai european, ci si mondial). Imprumutul masiv de termeni anglo-americani s-a manifestat dupa al doilea razboi mondial in majoritatea limbilor europene si nu numai.Vorbim de un fenomen explicabil mai ales prin progresul anumitor domenii ale tehnicii. Trebuie subliniat faptul ca aceste imprumuturi si influente sunt necesare, chiar pozitive, atata timp cat nu devin exagerate.
Imprumutul de termeni anglo-americani reprezinta un fenomen desfasurat in limba noastra mai ales in ultimele decenii. E o patrundere masiva, care continua sa creasca intr-un ritm accelerat, dar care isi gaseste motivatia in necesitatea de a desemna anumite realitati extralingvistice. Aceste realitati au uneori nevoie de termeni neechivoci(in special termeni tehnici ce necesita precizie) pentru a fi desemnate.
Un rol foarte important in difuzarea inovatiilor lexicale il are presa, care, pe langa faptul ca este considerata „a patra putere in stat”, este si un important factor cultural-educativ. Prin larga sa audienta, prin autoritatea pe care o impune, presa scrisa si audio-vizuala ia parte la „educarea lingvistica” a publicului, dar si la diversificarea si difuzarea inovatiilor lexicale.
Aspectele influentei engleze in limba romana poate fi abordata din perspectiva normativa: pe de o parte norma socio-culturala, iar pe de alta parte norma lingvistica.
Norma socio-culturala reglementeaza motivatia si functia imprumutului in raport cu specificul unui anumit stil sau registru al limbii. Conform celor doua categorii stabilite de Sextil Puscariu, anglicanismele care apar in presa actuala se pot incadra in: „necesare” sau „de lux”.
1. Imprumuturile necesare sunt acele cuvinte, sintagme sau unitati frazeologice care nu au un corespondent in limba romana sau care prezinta unele avantaje in raport cu termenul autohton. In acest sens, anglicismele necesare au avantajul preciziei, al brevilocventei si nu in ultimul rand al circulatiei internationale. Ele sunt motivate de noutatea referentului. In acelasi timp, luam in calcul si o motivare denotativa si, chiar una conotativa (stilistica), in anumite situatii, chiar daca mai putine la numar.
Anglicismele denotative nu au, in general, echivalente in limba romană, intrucat denumesc realitati aparute recent in diferite domenii ale culturii materiale si spirituale.
2. Anglicismele ,,de lux” sunt imprumuturi inutile, care tin de tendinta de ordin subiectiv a unor categorii sociale de a se individualiza lingvistic in acest mod. Asemenea termeni nu fac decat sa dubleze cuvine romanesti, fara a aduce informatii suplimentare.
IMPRUMUTURILE NECESARE -LISTA DOMENIILOR
Terminologia economica, financiara, comerciala si a profesoriilor
-Baby-sitter, cu sensul generic de „ingrijitor de copii”, apare in anunturile publicitare cu un sens specializat ce include „tehnici pentru ingrijirea, supravegherea si educarea copiilor prescolari si scolari”.
-Broker si dealer – intermediar.
-Drive-in – cinema, restaurant sau alt local care ofera servicii clientilor fara ca acestia sa-si paraseasca masinile, in timpul unei stiri fiind numit si „Fast Food la volan”.
-Duty-free – apare ca adjectiv avand semnificatia de marfuri cumparate pe aeroporturi, nave sau in avion, la preturi mici, fiind scutite de taxe. In presa actuala poate aparea si ca substantiv: „taxe de infiintare a unui duty-free”.
-Non-profit – care nu cauta sa obtina profit.
-Rating – categorie, clasificare, clasa, rang.
-Tour-operator – companie care organizeaza si vinde vacante prin intermediul unui agent turistic.
-Voucher – document care poate fi folosi, in loc de bani, pentru a plati ceva.
Terminologia tehnica
-Airbag – perna gonflabila destinata sa protejeze, in caz de ciocnire, pasagerii de pe locurile din fata ale unui automobil.
-Hard si soft – termeni din cibernetica.
-Lap-top – calculator portabil.
-Screening – examen medical realizat cu raze X.
- A scana – verbul din engleza „to scan”(a examina ceva in detaliu, cu ajutorul unui fascicul de raze X).
-Shipping – expediere de marfuri cu ajutorul navelor.
-Site – spatiu, pagina de Internet.
-Walkman – casetofon portabil cu casti, la care pot fi ascultate din mers inregistrari muzicale.
Termeni din domeniul comunicatiilor si presei
-Banner – fasie lunga de panza pe care este scris un mesaj, un slogan.
-Clip – scurt film publicitar difuzat la televizor.
-Hot line – linie telefonica prin care publicul poate contacta politia sau alte servicii pentru a da informatii despre anumite situatii speciale.
Termeni din domeniul invatamantului si cercetarii
-Curriculum – programa scolara pentru o anumita disciplina.
-Grant – suma de bani nerambursabila acordata unui cercetator individual, echipe de cercetare, institut de cercetare pentru realizarea, intr-o perioada de timp determinata, a unei activitati de cercetare stiintifica sau a unei activitati conexe activitatii stiintifice.
-Master – studii aprofundate.
Terminologia sportiva
-Snow-board - sportul si suportul cu ajutorul caruia este practicat.
-Skateboard – sportul practicat cu ajutorul plansei pe role.
-Skate – patinaj pe role.
-Canyoning – sport extrem constand in coborarea pe vaile unor torenti din munti.
Domeniul vietii mondene
-Body – obiect de lenjerie feminina.
-Bodypainting – pictura pe corp.
-Fan club – un grup organizat, ai carui membri admira aceeasi persoana.
-Grill – gratar.
-Roll on – recipient de uz cosmetic, medical cu bila.
-Stripper – persoana care castiga bani facand striptease.
-High-life – elita.
-Party – petrecere.
ANGLICANISMELE „DE LUX” – LISTA DOMENIILOR
Termeni din domeniul economic-financiar, comercial si al profesiilor
-Advertisig - publicitate.
-Agreement – acord financiar, economic.
-Showroom – magazin de expozitie.
Termeni din domeniul comunicatiilor
-Briefing – conferinta de presa.
-Key – speaker – vorbitor principal.
Domeniul invatamantului
-Training –pregatire, instruire.
-Item – intrebare, punct dintr-un test.
-Visitig professor – profesor oaspete.
Domeniul artistic
-Band – orchestra, formatie muzicala.
-Evergreen – slagar.
-Performance – spectacol.
-Teleplay – piesa de teatru la TV.
Domeniul sportiv
-Draftat – transferat.
-Pole-position – pozitie de favorit intr-o competitie sportiva.
-Soccer – fotbal.
Domeniul vietii mondene
-Fashion – moda.
-Make-up – farduri.
-Modeling – meseria de manechin.
Domeniul gastronomiei
-Snaks – gustari.
-Steak – carne pentru friptura.
Desi anglicanismele sunt termeni neadaptati sau incomplet adaptati la sistemul limbii, studiile spcializate au pus in evidenta faptul ca, prin caracterul lor regulat si repetabil, pot fi considerate ca avand caracter de norma(fonetica, ortografica, morfologica).
1. Normele ortografice si ortoepice
Tendinta generala a limbii literare actuale este de a pastra imprumuturile din engleza intr-o forma cat mai apropiata de cea din limba sursa. Pastrarea aspectului din limba de origine reprezinta si o conditie a fortei de sugestie(presa si limbajul tinerilor).
In cazul revenirii la scrierea etimologica a unor imprumuturi vechi, perfect similare sub aspect fonetic si grafic reprezinta o dovada de snobism. Exemple clare intalnim in presa: „leaderul”, „meeting”.
Tot in presa actuala intalnim tendinta de imitare a manierei anglo-americane de scriere cu majuscule a cuvintelor din componenta titlurilor(exemplu: „Produse Lactate De Cea Mai Inalta Calitate”).
Probleme de scriere apar adesea in cazul scrierii compuselor englezesti cu sau fara cratima, dar si in utilizarea cratimei in cazul formelor articulare enclitic, flexionate sau derivate. Exemple:
-skateboard si skate-board
-work-shop si workshop
-punk-ist si punkist
2. Normele morfologice
O consecinta a patrunderii masive a cuvintelor din engleza ar putea fi „subminarea” caracterului flexionar al limbii romane prin cresterea numarului adjectivelor invariabile si stergerea granitelor dintre partile de vorbire.
3. Norma lexico-semantica
Definirea sensului imprumuturilor se face, in general, printr-un sinonim sau o expresie echivalenta romaneasca. Anglicanismul mai poate fi introdus in text dupa echivalentul sau romanesc sau, intr-o maniera jurnalistica, prin alternarea termenilor sinonime in titluri si subtitluri.
In asimilarea anglicanismelor putem intalni diferite capcane: „falsi prieteni”, constructii pleonastice, termeni prost formati.
„Falsii prieteni” desemneaza teremni straini cu forma identica sau foarte apropiata, dar cu semnificatie distincta fata de corespondentele lor romanesti.
Exemple:
-a acomoda si to accomodate(a asigura cuiva cazarea)
-agrement si agreement(acord)
-audienta si audience(public)
-a observa si to observe(a respecta o lege, o traditie)
-suport si support(sprijin financiar).
Necunoasterea sensului unor anglicanisme, neatentia, graba sau neglijenta genereaza in presa constructii pleonastice.
Exemple:
-„leadership-ul american la conducerea treburilor parlamantare” (alaturarea unui anglicanism si a echivalentului sau romanesc)
-mijloace mass-media
-hit de mare succes
-conducerea manageriala a unitatii
Termeni prost formati:
-stripteuz
-hipermarket (inutil deoarece dubleaza sensul americanismului supermarket)
-bisnitman
Parerea mea in ceea ce priveste aceasta avalansa a termenilor din limba engleza este ca nu trebuie sa ne lasam in totalitate influentati de mass- media preluand fara a cerceta termeni straini inutili. Bucurandu-se de un mare succes in fata publicului larg, mass-media pune in pericol limba romana prin introducerea de termeni inutili, fara nicio necesitate.
In concluzie, asistand la o dezvoltare tehnologica fara precedent, la o interculturalitate in plina dezvoltare, nemaiintalnita pana azi, facilitata de numeroasele canale de comunicare si raspandire a ideilor, a cuceririlor stiintifice, a modelelor comportamentale, a tiparelor culturale, atat oamenii de cultura, cat si cadrele didactice trebuie sa intervina pentru protejarea limbii romane. Un articol privitor la protejarea limbii romane a fost publicat in ziarul „Romania Libera” din 16 septembrie 2007 cu titlul „Proiect de rezolutie privind protejarea limbii romane, la Parlamentul European”. Indiferent de numele initiatorului, o lege pentru protejarea limbii române este, cu siguranta, necesară. Evident, imprumuturile vor continua sa intre in limba romana, insa suntem datori sa ne informam in ceea ce priveste utilitatea lor si sa ne limitam la cele ce faciliteaza relatiile dintre oameni pentru un schimb mai bun cultural, sa facem uz , nu abuz si sa NU le utilizam doar pentru ca sunt la moda.
EXEMPLE DE ARTICOLE DIN PRESA SCRISA CE RELEVA AVALANSA IMPRUMUTURILOR DIN LIMBA ENGLEZA
„Broker Cluj a revenit la tranzactionare luni, cu un plus de 60% din actiuni incarcate in conturile investitorilor care au participat in vara la majorarea capitalului.”(„Romania Libera”- Sambata, 17 Noiembrie 2007)
„Pentru shopping combinat cu vacanta, romanii aleg sa mearga in Dubai, unde acum incepe sa se desfasoare Festivalul Shoppingului", a declarat Traian Badulescu, purtatorul de cuvant al Asociatiei Nationale a Agentiilor de Turism din Romania.”(„Romania Libera” -Marti, 08 Ianuarie 2008 )
"Eu si sotia mea, Tipper, vom dona intregul castig Aliantei pentru Protectia Climei, o organizatie non-profit dedicata schimbarii opiniei publice din SUA si din lume in privinta urgentei rezolvarii crizei climatului", a adaugat fostul vicepresedinte american.”(„Romania Libera” - Vineri, 12 Octombrie 2007)
„Visa le propune comerciantilor online o noua solutie de plata – 3V prepaid voucher – menita sa-i atraga in magazinele virtuale chiar si pe utilizatorii cei mai sceptici in ceea ce priveste siguranta tranzactiilor pe site-urile web.” („Romania Libera”- Luni, 08 Octombrie 2007)
„…airbag sofer si pasager, Cruise Control, capac mobil portbagaj, usa laterala culisanta dreapta vitrata, etc.”(„Romania Libera”- Luni, 17 Decembrie 2007 )
„In acest sens, Nokia N810 este echipat cu acelasi touchscreen cu diagonala de 10,5 cm (sau 4,1") si rezolutie de 800 x 430 pixeli ca si predecesorul sau, ceea ce face ca acest device sa nu fie unul de dimensiuni mici (72x128x14 mm si greutate de 226 grame). Insa cea mai interesanta imbunatatire adusa este adaugarea unui modul GPS si a unui set de harti preinstalate. Alt lucru important – dotarea cu o tastatura QWERTY hardware care va usura introducerea de text.”(„Romania Libera”- Marti, 23 Octombrie 2007)
„Laptop rezistent la socuri, PDA ignifug, player MP3 pentru surferi: produse de nisa, mai rare in magazine.”(„Evenimentul zilei”-12 Noiembrie 2007)
„Subsidiara din Romania a producatorului de echipament sportiv Puma va deschide, luna viitoare, primul showroom permanent de pe piata locala, in Bucuresti.” (Evenimentul zilei”-17 Noiembrie 2007)
„Doi nemteni, sot si sotie, din orasul Roman, si-au deschis, in urma cu doua saptamani, un pet-shop cu pasari si animale de companie.:(„Evenimentul zilei” -26 Noiembrie 2007 )
„Momentele tensionate s-au tinut lant vineri seara la show-ul "Dansez pentru tine", astfel ca, in intervalul orar 20.31-0.55, Pro TV a inregistrat pe publicul comercial cu varste cuprinse intre 18 si 49 de ani o medie de audienta de 8,7 puncte de rating si 28,3 cota de piata.
Postul lui Sarbu a fost lider detasat in prime-time, Antena 1 inregistrand abia 1,4 puncte de rating si o cota de piata de 4,4%.”(„Evenimentul zilei”-5 Noiembrie 2007 )
„Cei care sunt promoteri sau hostess pot lucra program normal, de luni pana vineri, sau numai in week-end.”(„Evenimentul zilei”- 25 Decembrie 2007)
„Angajatorii atrag studentii cu oferte part-time”(„Evenimentul zilei”-29 Octombrie 2007)
SURSE:
http://209.85.129.104/search?q=cache:z33zKULD-HcJ:www.uttgm.ro/facultati_departamente/stiinte_litere/conferinte/situl_integrare_europeana/Lucrari/LauraRus.pdf+influenta+limbii+engleza+in+limba+romana+actuala&hl=ro&ct=clnk&cd=2&gl=ro&clien
Adriana Stoichitoiu-Ichim – „Vocabularul limbii romane actuale – Dinamica, influente, creativitate”
http://www.expres.ro/article.php?artid=328579
joi, 10 ianuarie 2008
Les trésors de la France
Château de Versailles
Le château de Versailles fut la résidence des rois de France Louis XIII, Louis XIV, Louis XV et Louis XVI. Il est situé à l'ouest de Paris, dans la ville de Versailles, France. Ce château est devenu un symbole de l'apogée de la royauté française. La grandeur des lieux se voulait à l'image de celle des rois successifs. Le château de Versailles comprend de nombreux éléments .
Le château à proprement parler, est constitué d'une succession d'éléments ayant une harmonie architecturale. Il s'étale sur 67 000 m² et comprend plus de 2 000 pièces
Le parc du château de Versailles s'étend sur 815 ha (8000 avant la Révolution) dont 93 ha de jardins.
o Le Petit Trianon et le Grand Trianon
o Le Hameau de la Reine
o Le Grand et le Petit Canal
o La ménagerie
o Une orangerie
o La pièce d'eau des Suisses
vineri, 4 ianuarie 2008
Le conflit entre les générations
L’adolescence est la période de la vie humaine comprinse entre l’âge de la puberté et l’âge de la maturité où ont lieu les plus importantes transformations psychiques et physiques. Donc, pendant cette période on doit prendre conscience de son individualité, on doit lutter pour son opinion et doivent affronter tout seuls les problèmes quotidiens. Chacum a passé, pasee où passera par cette période de la vie, mais comme tout change à unde vitesse incroyable, les ados d’aujourd’hui ne sont jamais pareils aux ados de hier.
Pour cette raison, je considère qu’on a créé une fossé entre les générations bassée sur l’étonnement, la méfience et même la colère avec lesquels les adultes regardent les nouvelles manifestations. Par exemple : le progrès scientifique et technique peut être une barrière entre les deux générations. Nous avons agrandi avec la télévision et l’ordinateur, des réalités qui, il y a quelque temps, étaient de simples projets.
D’une part, on entend souvent des remarques comme : « Je n’arrive plus à comprendre mon fils. Comment peut-il écouter une telle musique et habiller de tels vêtements ? ». Cela veut dire que notre génération a dévélopé sa manière de vivre très différente en posant l’accent sur les vêtements qui disposent d’une grande diversité, on n’imagine pas la vie sans le portable, sans l’Internet ou sans nostre musique préférée.
D’autre part, on entand beaucoup de fois des affirmations comme : « Mes parents voudraient que j’ignore mon âge et devenir tout à coup adulte, ça veut dire banal, conformiste et serieux. » À mon avis, ma génération est attraite par tout ce qui étonne, qui sorte en évidence, on n’aime pas se conformer, c'est-à-dire qu’on fait partie d’une génération rebelle.
En fait, chaque génération (comme chaque époque ) a ses caractéristiques. Et, d’habitude, on a la tendance de donner aux changements l’air d’une réplique à ce qui existait jusqu’à nous.
Bref, la conflit de générations il y a sans dout et , d’ailleurs, je trouve ces différences très normales. La seule solution pour améliorer ce conflit est la tolérance d’une part tout comme de l’autre. Ainsi, on peut rêver à une époque sans conflits dans le futur…Ou ce n’est qu’un idéal ?
Pour conclure, je veux dire que ce phénomène assure l’évolution des sociétés. En plus, on doit être content de la chance de puvoir faire des comparaisons et d’apprécier les efforts de nos ancêtres pour nous donner une vie pleine de commodité.
miercuri, 2 ianuarie 2008
La Révolution française
La période 1789-1870 en fut une d'agitation et de changement de régimes. Elle marqua aussi le triomphe de la bourgeoisie, qui s'installait au pouvoir. Cette période d'instabilité commença avec la Révolution. Après la dictature militaire de Napoléon, ce fut le retour à la monarchie qui, cette fois, était établie sur des bases constitutionnelles. Puis ce fut la IIe République, suivie d'une autre dictature avec Napoléon III. La France se stabilisa avec la proclamation de la IIIe République en 1870.
Pendant cette période, l'Angleterre exerça sa suprématie non seulement en Europe, mais en Asie, au Moyen-Orient et en Amérique. Ailleurs, on assista à l’expansion de la Russie, à l'indépendance de la Belgique, de la Grèce (contre les Turcs), de la Bulgarie et de la Serbie, ainsi qu'à l'unification de l'Italie et à celle de l'Allemagne. Pendant que l'Amérique se décolonisait, les grandes puissances européennes prirent possession de l’Afrique.
Par ailleurs, certaines innovations comme les chemins de fer, la navigation à vapeur, l'électricité, le téléphone, eurent un effet considérable, soit sur l'unification linguistique à l'intérieur des États, soit sur la pénétration des langues les unes par les autres. L’amorce de l'industrialisation et de l'urbanisation eut des conséquences semblables.
1. La guerre aux patois sous la Révolution (1789-1799)
À la veille de la Révolution, la France était encore le pays le plus peuplé d'Europe (26 millions d'habitants) et l'un des plus riches. Néanmoins, tout ce monde paraissait insatisfait. Les paysans formaient 80 % de la population et assumaient la plus grande partie des impôts royaux, sans compter la dîme due à l'Église et les droits seigneuriaux, alors qu'ils recevaient les revenus les plus faibles. La bourgeoisie détenait à peu près tout le pouvoir économique, mais elle était tenue à l'écart du pouvoir politique. Pendant ce temps, la noblesse vivait dans l'oisiveté, et l'Église possédait 10 % des terres les plus riches du pays.
Dans ces conditions, il n'est pas étonnant que les révoltes populaires finirent par éclater, d'autant plus qu'elles avaient été préparées par la classe bourgeoise depuis longtemps. C'est le peuple qui prit la Bastille le 14 juillet 1783, qui fit exécuter Louis XVI et, en définitive, qui fit la Révolution, mais c'est la bourgeoisie qui accapara le pouvoir. La période révolutionnaire mit en valeur le sentiment national, renforcé par la nécessité de défendre le pays contre les armées étrangères appelées par les nobles en exil qui n'acceptaient pas leur déchéance.
Ce mouvement de patriotisme s'étendit aussi au domaine de la langue; pour la première fois, on associa langue et nation. Désormais, la langue devint une affaire d'État: il fallait doter d'une langue nationale la «République unie et indivisible» et élever le niveau des masses par l'instruction ainsi que par la diffusion du français. Or, l'idée même d'une «République unie et indivisible», dont la devise était «Fraternité, Liberté et Égalité pour tous», ne pouvait se concilier avec le morcellement linguistique et le particularisme des anciennes provinces. Les révolutionnaires bourgeois y virent même un obstacle à la propagation de leurs idées; ils déclarèrent la guerre aux patois. Bertrand Barère, membre du Comité de salut public, déclencha l'offensive en faveur de l'existence d'une langue nationale:
Dans on rapport «sur les idiomes» qu'il présenta devant la Convention du 27 janvier 1794, Barère expliqua:
Il n'était pas le seul dans ce cas. Les membres de la classe dirigeante de la Révolution étaient nombreux dans ce cas. L'un des plus célèbres d'entre eux fut certainement l'abbé Henri-Baptiste Grégoire (1750-1831).
L'abbé Grégoire dénonça la situation linguistique de la France républicaine qui, «avec trente patois différents», en était encore «à la tour de Babel», alors que, «pour la liberté», elle forme «l'avant-garde des nations». Il déclara à la Convention: «Nous n'avons plus de provinces et nous avons trente patois qui en rappellent les noms.» Avec une sorte d'effarement, l'abbé Grégoire révéla dans son rapport de juin 1794 qu'on ne parlait «exclusivement» le français que dans «environ 15 départements» (sur 83). Il lui paraissait paradoxal, et pour le moins insupportable, de constater que moins de trois millions de Français sur 25 parlaient la langue nationale, alors que celle-ci était utilisée et unifiée «même dans le Canada et sur les bords du Mississipi». Devant le Comité de l'Instruction publique, l’abbé Grégoire déclara, le 20 septembre 1793:
Un discours se développa dans lequel le terme langue reste l'apanage exclusif du français appelé «notre langue». Tout ce qui n'est pas français s'appelle patois ou idiomes féodaux: ce sont pour Grégoire le breton, le normand, le picard, le provençal, le gascon, le basque, etc. Il parle même de «l'italien de Corse» (corse) et de «l’allemand des Haut et Bas-Rhin» (alsacien) qu'il qualifie d’«idiomes très-dégénérés». Enfin, il signale que «les nègres de nos colonies» pratiquent «une espèce d’idiome pauvre» qu'il associe à la «la langue franque».
Dès lors, il devenait nécessaire d'imposer le français par des décrets rigoureux à travers toute la France. Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand (1754-1838), l'un des grands hommes politiques de l'époque, proposa qu'il y ait une école primaire dans chacune des municipalités:
Puis, le décret du 2 Thermidor :
(Article 1: À compter du jour de la publication de la présente loi, nul acte public ne pourra, dans quelque partie que ce soit du territoire de la République, être écrit qu'en langue française.
Article 2: Après le mois qui suivra la publication de la présente loi, il ne pourra être enregistré aucun acte, même sous seing privé, s'il n'est écrit en langue française.
Article 3: Tout fonctionnaire ou officier public, tout agent du Gouvernement qui, à dater du jour de la publication de la présente loi, dressera, écrira ou souscrira, dans l'exercice de ses fonctions, des procès-verbaux, jugements, contrats ou autres actes généralement quelconques conçus en idiomes ou langues autres que la française, sera traduit devant le tribunal de police correctionnelle de sa résidence, condamné à six mois d'emprisonnement, et destitué.
Article 4: La même peine aura lieu contre tout receveur du droit d'enregistrement qui, après le mois de la publication de la présente loi, enregistrera des actes, même sous seing privé, écrits en idiomes ou langues autres que le français).
Cette lois sanctionna la terreur linguistique. À partir de ce moment, les patois locaux furent pourchassés. En raison de la chute de Robespierre, le décret fut suspendu quelques semaines plus tard (en septembre), jusqu'à la diffusion d'un nouveau rapport sur cette matière par des «comités de législation et d'instruction publique».
Jusqu'à ce moment-là, on ne pouvait affirmer que l’interventionnisme linguistique était délibérément dirigé contre les langues régionales (patois). Mais dès l’instant où l’on commença à interdire les autres langues, il allait de soi que ces dernières en souffriraient, comme le laisse entendre le décret du 30 Vendémiaire an II (17 novembre 1794): «Dans toutes les parties de la République, l'instruction ne se fait qu'en langue française.».
2. Les résistances à la francisation
Mais la «terreur linguistique» ne réussit pas à détruire la «tour de Babel dialectale». Outre les résistances, la sécularisation des lieux ecclésiastiques entraîna la disparition de la plupart des écoles alors que l'État n'avait pas les moyens de les remplacer. L'enseignement du français demeura une ambition que les petites écoles de village ne purent se permettre de satisfaire, faute de moyens financiers et faute d'instituteurs.
Même à Paris les écoles publiques ne fonctionnèrent pas, sinon fort mal, en raison du manque d'enseignants (salaires trop bas, recrutement déplorable, absence de formation, etc.). Dans les écoles qui arrivaient à fonctionner, les administrations locales préférèrent traduire en patois ou en dialecte plutôt que d'utiliser le français; par souci de réalisme, le système de la traduction se poursuivit tout au long de la Révolution, même sous la Terreur.
3. Une langue francaise enfin nationale
Malgré tout, cette période agitée et instable fit progresser considérablement le français sur le territoire national. Les nouvelles institutions, plus démocratiques, firent qu'un très grand nombre de délégués de tous les départements ou divers représentants du peuple se trouvèrent réunis dans des assemblées délibérantes où le français était la seule langue utilisée.
Les populations rurales, désireuses de connaître les événements ainsi que leurs nouveaux droits et devoirs, se familiarisèrent avec le français. Il s'agissait souvent d'un français assez particulier, mais d'un français quand même, comme celui de ce paysan: «Depeu la revolutiun, je commençon de franciller esé bein.» Il faut ajouter aussi que la diffusion des journaux aidait grandement à répandre la langue nationale jusque dans les campagnes les plus éloignées.
Une autre cause importante dans la francisation: la vie des armées. L'enrôlement obligatoire tira les hommes de toutes les campagnes patoisantes pour les fondre dans des régiments où se trouvèrent entremêlés divers patois, divers français régionaux et le français national, la seule langue du commandement. De retour dans leur foyer, les soldats libérés contribuèrent à l'implantation du français.
En revanche, lorsque les guerres défensives avec les États voisins devinrent offensives, les diverses nations étrangères prirent conscience d'elles-mêmes en réaction contre les invasions françaises. L'Espagne, l'Allemagne et l'Italie luttèrent même contre la prépondérance du français, dont le caractère prétendument «universel» devint dès lors fortement contesté. À la fin de la Révolution, la «clientèle du français» en Europe avait changé: il n'était plus l'apanage de l'aristocratie, mais du monde scientifique.
Les conséquences de la Révolution sur le français concernèrent davantage le statut que le code lui-même. La langue fit désormais partie intégrante du concept d'une nation moderne. L’unité politique passa par l’unification linguistique. Pour la première fois, l'État français avait une véritable politique linguistique, mais ces dix années mouvementées de la Révolution ne suffirent à donner des résultats sérieux.
4. Un francais bourgeois
Quant au code lui-même du français, il ne changea pas beaucoup au XVIIIe siècle. Le français populaire ne remplaça pas la langue aristocratique. Tout vint d'en haut, c'est-à-dire de la bourgeoisie dont la variété de français n'était pas vraiment très différente de celle de l’Ancien Régime. La seule influence populaire concernait la prononciation de l'ancienne diphtongue -oi qui, de wé (dans loi), passa à wa. Par ailleurs, le «tutoiement révolutionnaire» et le titre égalitariste de citoyen/citoyenne à la place de monsieur/madame ne persistèrent pas. Cependant, le vocabulaire subit un certain remue-ménage en raison des nouvelles réalités politiques et sociales. Tout le vocabulaire politique administratif se modifia avec la disparition des mots relatifs à l'Ancien Régime et la création de mots nouveaux ou employés avec un genre nouveau. Mais le français ne fut pas envahi par des mots «populaires». Après tout, c'est la bourgeoisie qui dirigeait les assemblées délibérantes, qui orientait les débats, qui alimentait les idées révolutionnaires et qui contrôlait le pouvoir dont le peuple était écarté.
5. Le retour au conservatorisme sous Napoléon (1799-1815)
Par le coup d'État du 18 Brumaire, an VIII (9 novembre 1799), Napoléon Bonaparte voulut mettre fin à l'anarchie et au chaos économique. Son premier souci fut de restaurer l'ordre et l'autorité. Il y réussit en instaurant une véritable dictature militaire: mise en place d'une administration extrêmement centralisée et surveillée, censure vigilante, contrôle de l'opinion publique, police omniprésente, racolage impitoyable pour le recrutement des armées. En maître autoritaire, Napoléon redressa la situation financière, stimula l'industrie et améliora les communications; mais la marche de l'empereur des Français vers l'hégémonie en Europe tint le pays en état de guerre permanent, jusqu'à la défaite de Waterloo (1815).
Ce Corse de petite noblesse ne pouvait qu'avoir des visées conservatrices en matière de langue. De langue maternelle corse, une langue italienne, Napoléon fit cesser tout effort de propagande en faveur du français. Par souci d'économie, il abandonna les écoles à l'Église, qui rétablit alors son latin anachronique. Quelques initiatives furent prises en faveur de l'enseignement du français, mais le bilan resta négatif: le nombre d'écoles demeura inférieur aux besoins et la pénurie de maîtres qualifiés laissa l'enseignement de la langue déficient. Dans l'ensemble, la diffusion du français dans les écoles accusa même un recul. Dans le sud de la France, on comptait plus de maîtres de latin que de maîtres de français.
Comme au Grand Siècle, l'État créa un certain nombre d'organismes, tous d'inspiration conservatrice, chargés de veiller sur la langue: l'Institut, le Conseil grammatical, l'Athénée de la langue française, etc. Ce fut le retour au classicisme louis-quatorzien: le français devait être fixé de façon permanente. La sobriété et la distinction furent remises à l'honneur; la langue de la science fut l'objet de suspicion et attira la foudre des censeurs, le vocabulaire technique fut jugé vulgaire. La vogue fut à la grammaire traditionnelle et à la littérature du Grand Siècle.
Une telle conjoncture ne favorisa évidemment pas une évolution rapide de la langue. De fait, on n'enregistra pas de changement linguistique à cette époque, sauf dans le vocabulaire. Les guerres napoléoniennes favorisèrent les contacts avec les armées étrangères, ce qui entraîna un certain nombre d'emprunts à l'anglais.
Malgré le mouvement de conservatisme du Premier Empire, le français progressa inexorablement; tout d'abord par la très grande centralisation, ensuite par les guerres qui entraînèrent d'immenses brassages de population. Dorénavant, la langue française était celle de toute la nation, bien qu'un bilinguisme patois-français se maintenait.
Hors de France, les conquêtes impérialistes de Napoléon achevèrent de discréditer le français dans toutes les cours européennes, et les nationalismes étrangers s'affirmèrent partout. Le français continua d'être utilisé néanmoins à la cour du tsar de Russie, dans les traités de paix et dans les milieux scientifiques. En Amérique, la France perdit deux possessions importantes: Saint-Domingue et surtout la Louisiane qui, vendue par Napoléon aux États-Unis pour 15 millions de dollars en 1803, représentait un immense territoire (Arkansas, Dakota, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Oklahoma). De plus, en France même, le pays rétrécit avec la perte de la Wallonie, de la Lorraine et de l’Alsace.
6. Conservatorisme et libéralisme (1815-1870)
Cette période est caractérisée par les conflits entre les forces conservatrices et les forces libérales. Ces dernières tentaient de s'affranchir des contraintes et cherchaient le changement; les forces conservatrices, au contraire, tenaient au statu quo et à leurs privilèges et cédaient alors à l'autoritarisme. À l'exemple de la vie publique, la langue refléta ces tiraillements: d'un côté, la grammaire s'alourdit de règles; de l'autre, le vocabulaire et la langue littéraire s'affranchirent des barrières de l'Ancien Régime.
La Restauration (1815-1830) ramena une monarchie constitutionnelle non démocratique avec Louis XVIII (1815-1824) et Charles X (1824-1830). Ce fut le retour à l’Ancien Régime conservateur et réactionnaire. Le renforcement de la politique réactionnaire et autoritaire de Charles X causa même sa perte lors de la révolution de 1830. La bourgeoisie d'affaires libérale porta alors au pouvoir le roi Louis-Philippe (18301848), un partisan des idées révolutionnaires et du système capitaliste. Habile, le «roi-citoyen» finit par s'imposer malgré les agitations politiques entre royalistes de l'Ancien Régime, bonapartistes et républicains.
Sous son règne, le progrès économique s'accéléra, l’industrialisation se généralisa avec l'apparition du chemin de fer et des grandes compagnies, le pays retrouva son prestige avec l'expansion coloniale en Algérie, en Afrique noire et dans le Pacifique. Cependant, à partir de 1840, le régime devint de plus en plus conservateur, alors que les mouvements réformistes devinrent plus agressifs; Guizot, le chef du gouvernement, peu sensibilisé aux idées libérales et socialistes, pratiqua une politique autoritaire qui déclencha le mouvement insurrectionnel populaire de 1848. Ce fut la proclamation de la IIe République.
6.1 Le conservatisme scolaire
Du côté de la langue, l'action de l'État refléta les forces contradictoires de l'époque. La création d'un système d'enseignement primaire d'État (non obligatoire) en 1830 releva d'un esprit libéral; cet enseignement s'adressait à tous et prescrivait l'usage de manuels en français (non plus en latin). Cette mesure s'inscrivit dans une politique générale des nations modernes pour lesquelles l'enseignement de la langue nationale constituait le ciment de l'unité politique et sociale. En revanche, la politique des programmes resta foncièrement conservatrice.
Tout l'enseignement de la langue française reposa obligatoirement sur la grammaire codifiée par Noël et Chapsal (Grammaire française, 1823) ainsi que sur l'orthographe de l'Académie. Les élèves apprirent une énumération d'usages capricieux érigés en règlements qui ne tenaient pas compte des fluctuations possibles de la langue usuelle et où la minutie des exceptions formait l'essentiel de l'enseignement grammatical. Comme la connaissance de l'orthographe était obligatoire pour l'accession à tous les emplois publics, chacun se soumit. La «bonne orthographe» devint une marque de classe, c'est-à-dire de distinction sociale. Évidemment, les enfants de la bourgeoisie réussissaient mieux que ceux de la classe ouvrière, qui montraient des réticences à adopter une prononciation calquée sur l'orthographe.
Les nombreuses réformes pour simplifier l'orthographe échouèrent toutes les unes après les autres. Progressivement, vers 1850, se fixa la norme moderne du français: la prononciation de la bourgeoisie parisienne s'étendit à toute la France, expansion facilitée par la centralisation et le développement des communications (chemin de fer, journaux).
6.2 Le libéralisme littéraire
Si les forces conservatrices régnaient dans le domaine scolaire, la libéralisation gagna la langue littéraire et le vocabulaire de la langue commune. Contrecoup retardé de la Révolution française, le mouvement romantique révolutionna la langue littéraire et rompit avec l'humanisme classique sclérosé. L'autorité en matière de langue devait cesser d'appartenir uniquement aux grammairiens et être rendue aux écrivains: plus de dogmes, plus de mots interdits. «Tous les mots sont égaux en droit», de proclamer Victor Hugo. À la fixité devait se substituer le mouvement; ce fut l'explosion de la poésie lyrique, sentimentale et pittoresque (Lamartine, Vigny, Hugo, Musset), l'avènement de la peinture des moeurs dans le roman, avec Hugo, Dumas, Stendhal, Sand, Balzac, etc., lesquels n'hésitèrent pas à employer la langue populaire et argotique. La plupart des romans de cette époque furent publiés en feuilletons dans les journaux et connurent ainsi une énorme diffusion.
Quant à la langue commune, elle se chargea d'encyclopédisme: les découvertes et les inventions dans tous les domaines se succédèrent de plus en plus rapidement et mirent en circulation des mots techniques, voire des systèmes entiers de nomenclature dont le monde avait besoin.
6.3 L’enrichissement du vocabulaire
Cette période agitée, constamment partagée entre le conservatisme et le libéralisme, se poursuivit encore après la révolte populaire de 1848 qui proclama la IIe République. Celle-ci fut aussitôt noyautée par les éléments les plus conservateurs de la bourgeoisie. Devant l'incapacité du gouvernement de maintenir la paix sociale, le président de la République, Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (neveu de Napoléon 1er), prépara et réussit un coup d'État (1851), et se fit nommer empereur des Français (1851) sous le nom de Napoléon III; ce fut le Second Empire. Se présentant comme le champion du suffrage universel, le protecteur du monde ouvrier et de la religion, Napoléon III se transforma rapidement en véritable dictateur: il supprima la liberté de presse, exclut les opposants régime, exerça une politique extérieure belliqueuse, suscitant ainsi partout la révolte. Entraîné dans une guerre avec la Prusse, il fut fait prisonnier à Sedan (1870) et dut abdiquer, tandis que les forces ennemies marchèrent sur Paris, qui se rendit en 1871. Ce fut la fin du Second Empire et le début de la IIIe République, qui stabilisa enfin la France.
Quel est le bilan linguistique de cette époque? Ces deux dernières décennies ont surtout été bénéfiques pour l’enrichissement du vocabulaire. L'oppression intellectuelle du Second Empire favorisa un vigoureux brassage idéologique des mouvements d'opposition; le vocabulaire libéral, socialiste, communiste, voire anarchiste, gagna la classe ouvrière. Les applications pratiques des découvertes en sciences naturelles, en physique, en chimie et en médecine apportèrent beaucoup de mots nouveaux nécessaires à tout le monde. De nouvelles sciences apparurent, avec leur lexique: l'archéologie, la paléontologie, l’ethnographie, la zoologie, la linguistique, etc. Les ouvrages de vulgarisation, les journaux, les revues et, une nouveauté, la publicité, diffusèrent partout les néologismes. Littré et Larousse consignèrent chacun ces nouveautés dans leur dictionnaire.
À la fin du Second Empire, le français concernait tout le monde en France. Même si l'unité linguistique n'était pas encore réalisée complètement, elle était devenue irréversible et imminente. Phénomène significatif, les patoisants virent leur parler local envahi par les mots du français moderne.
LES FÊTES ET LES COUTUMES CHEZ LES FRANÇAIS
1.Le calendrier des fêtes françaises
Beaucoup de fêtes et de jours fériés (des jours où légalement on ne travaille pas) sont des fêtes d'origine catholique malgré la séparation de l'Eglise et de l'Etat pour permettre aux Français de pratiquer leur religion. Aujourd'hui, les gens étant moins religieux, les jeunes ignorent parfois l'origine de certaines traditions.
-Le 1er janvier: jour de l'An - On souhaite une "bonne année" et une "bonne santé" à sa famille, à ses amis, à ses voisins. On fait un repas de famille. Parfois on reçoit des "étrennes" (de l'argent ou de petits cadeaux). Pendant tout le mois de janvier, on envoie des cartes de voeux à tous ceux qu'on n'a pas vus pour les fêtes.
-Le 6 janvier ou le 1er dimanche du mois: l'Epiphanie - On tire les rois, c'est à dire qu'on mange une couronne des rois ou une galette qui contient un petit objet,la fève. La personne qui la trouve devient le roi ou la reine, met une couronne en papier sur sa tête et couronne son roi ou sa reine (voir annexe no. 1)
-Le 2 février: la Chandeleur- On mange des crêpes. Cela porte bonheur de les faire sauter avec un morceau d'or (une bague par exemple) dans la main.
-Le 14 février: la Saint-Valentin- C'est la fête de l'amour. Les amoureux sortent, vont au restaurant et les jeunes filles reçoivent des fleurs ou des bijoux.
-Le Mardi Gras: C'est le jour avant le mercredi des Cendres (le 1er jour du Carême - Les 40 jours avant Pâques pendant lesquels on ne mangeait pas de viande autrefois.) Dans certaines villes en France comme Nice ou La Nouvelle Orléans aux Etats-Unis, on peut s'amuser au carnaval et regarder les chars défiler.
-La Mi-Carême: Les enfants se déguisent et on assiste à un défilé de chars souvent en fleurs (ou en fleurs en papier) avec des fanfares et des majorettes (voir annexe no. 3). Au Québec, le dernier char est celui du Bonhomme carnaval mais en France, c'est celui de la reine et de ses deux dauphines qui marque la fin du défilé. Pour s'amuser, on lance des serpentins et des confettis.
-Le 1er avril: On fait ou on dit des blagues. A la fin, on dit "poisson d'avril!" (On peut parfois accrocher discrètement un poisson en papier dans le dos d'une personne.)
-Le dimanche des Rameaux: Le dimanche avant Pâques, les catholiques vont à l'église avec une petite branche de rameau ou de buis (un arbuste avec de très petites feuilles).
-Pâques: les enfants reçoivent des oeufs en sucre et en chocolat (voir annexe no. 4); beaucoup de familles profitent de ce long weekend pour se retrouver autour d'une table, il n'y a pas de plats traditionnels le jour de Pâques. On servira peut-être un plat qu'on mange moins souvent comme un gigot de mouton ou un lapin.
-Le 1er mai: fête du travail- Pendant ce jour férié on s'offre un petit bouquet de muguet. 13 petites fleurs blanches sur un brin portent bonheur. Les syndicats défilent dans les rues.
-Le 8 mai: jour férié pour célébrer l'armistice de la deuxième guerre mondiale. Les politiciens et les anciens soldats déposent des fleurs au pied du monument aux morts.
-Le jeudi de l'Ascension: jour férié - fête catholique 40 jours après Pâques pour célébrer la montée de Jésus au paradis.
-La fête des mères: cette fête est en général à la fin du mois de mai - On offre un cadeau ou des fleurs à sa mère en lui disant "Bonne fête, maman!".
-Le dimanche et le lundi de la Pentecôte: jours fériés (fête catholique)
-La fête des pères: on offre un cadeau à son père un dimanche vers la mi-juin.
-Le 21juin: fête de la musique - Des musiciens amateurs et professionnels de tout âge, seuls ou en groupes, jouent dans les rues.
-Le 14 juillet: fête nationale- On célèbre la prise de la Bastille qui a marqué le commencement de la révolution en 1789. Ce jour-là, il y a des défilés militaires, des bals dans les rues et des feux d'artifices le soir. Dans certains villages, on organise une retraite aux flambeaux le 13 (voir annexe no. 5).
-Le 15 août: jour férié - fête catholique pour célébrer l'Assomption de la Vierge Marie. On fait souvent un repas de famille.
-Le 11 novembre: jour férié pour célébrer l'armistice de la première guerre mondiale en 1918. On dépose des fleurs sur la tombe du soldat inconnu (sous l'Arc de triomphe) et au pied des monuments aux morts.
-Le 25 novembre: la Sainte Catherine - ce jour-là, les jeunes filles célibataires de 25ans ou plus portent un chapeau excentrique (au travail par exemple). On les appelle "les Catherinettes".
-Le 25 décembre: Noël - La veille de Noël, vers minuit, on fait un grand repas, appelé le réveillon. On mange des plats traditionnels comme le foie gras (ou le pâté de foie gras), des fruits de mer (des huîtres servies dans leur coquille), de la dinde farcie aux marrons ou des boudins blancs truffés (ou un autre plat selon les familles), du fromage, et en dessert, un gâteau, appelé “bûche” ( gâteau roulé avec une crème au beurre). On boit bien sûr du vin et du champagne!
-Le 31 décembre: la Saint Sylvestre - On fait plus ou moins le même repas que pour Noël mais avec ses amis, au restaurant ou chez soi (voir annexe no. 6).
2.Connaissez-vous la raison de l’existence des fêtes?
Noël, Pâques, le Mardi Gras, la fête du printemps, les anniversaires de naissance, les carnavals, les festivals, les parades, les fêtes paroissiales...
Aimez-vous célébrer? Avez-vous le sens de la fête? Connaissez-vous la raison de l'existence de toutes ces célébrations?
2.1.L’Épiphanie(Le 4 janvier)
2.1.1.Épiphanie-coutumes et croyances
Ce n’est pas un jour férié mais une fête d’origine religieuse. Elle commémore la visite des “Rois mages” venus offrir leur présents, l’or, la myrrhe et l’encens, à l’Enfant Jésus .
On attribue pourtant la fête des Rois à une origine plus païenne… On sait que, déjà, les Romains célébraient une fête des Rois à l´époque des Saturnales, tirant au sort avec des fèves qui serait roi du festin. Eux-mêmes empruntèrent cet usage aux Grecs qui se servaient des fèves pour l´élection de leurs magistrats. En succédant au paganisme, le christianisme chercha à consacrer ces fêtes par ses rites et ses cérémonies propres: le 5 janvier, veille de l´Épiphanie, les chanoines élisaient dans leurs cathédrales un roi parmi eux. Une fois installé le roi, chacun venait lui offrir des présents. Un festin couronnait ce jour de fête. Rentrant chez eux, les fidèles en firent autant et élirent un roi parmi eux au moyen d´une fève cachée dans un gateau. La première part, appelée la part de Dieu, était réservée aux voyageurs, aux pèlerins, ou aux pauvres qui viendraient ce soir-là à la porte.
En Bretagne, la veille de la fête des Rois, les enfants de chœurs, marguilliers, jeunes et mendiants venaient quêter la part de Dieu sur le seuil des maisons.
A Saint-Pol-de-Léon , une procession, constituée d´un pauvre de l´hospice en tête, puis des notables, des marguilliers de la ville et des enfants, s´arrêtait de porte en porte. Chaque habitant offrait des victuailles ou une petite obole. On les déposait dans le panniers porté par un cheval décoré de rubans, de gui et de laurier. « Inguinané! Inguinané! » Criaient alors les enfants. Le produit de la quête était distribué aux pauvres afin qu´ils puissent, eux aussi, fêter l´Épiphanie.
2.1.2.Vision moderniste d’une fête ancienne
Dans un pays qui a aboli la royauté d’une manière assez brutale, il est amusant de voir que cette coutume est toujours pratiquée, non seulement à la maison, mais aussi au bureau, chez les amis… et même à l’Élysée, chez le président de la République! En fait c’est tout au long du mois de janvier qu’on peut acheter dans les boulangeries ces galettes des rois. La recette et la présentation varie du nord au Midi, les motifs des fèves sont très variés (il existe des collectionneurs de fèves!) mais toutes sont vendues avec l’indispensable couronne.
2.2La Chandeleur (Le 2 février)
2.2.1.La chandeleur-Les traditions
On célèbre ce jour la présentation de Jésus au Temple et les relevailles de la Vierge, quarante jours après Noël. Au quarantième jour après la naissance de Jésus, la Vierge se rendit au Temple présenter, pour sa purification, deux tourterelles et deux pigeons.
Chandeleur nous vient de la coutume selon laquelle, en ce jour, on faisait autrefois des processions avec des chandelles allumées. Le pape Gélase fit supprimer la cérémonie en 472 mais les traditions de la Chandeleur sont restées.
En Bretagne, ce cierge était précieusement conservé. On ne l´allumait dans l´année qu´au cours de violents orages. On s´agenouillait alors et on adressait une prière. Ce cierge était béni le jour de la Chandeleur à l´église, suivit aprés d´une procession (voir annexe no. 2).
Le jour de la Chandeleur, en Loire-Atlantique, on fleurissait les ruches. Une branche de saule ou de noisetier les plaçait sous la bienveillance céleste. On remplaçait parfois la branche par des chatons de couldre ou de sauldre (noisetier ou saule) que l´on mettait à l´intérieur de la ruche. On évitait de se marier à la Chandeleur. A Rennes , prétendait que cela portait malheur.
La veille de la Chandleur était particulièrement propice aux jeunes filles qui désiraient connaître l’homme qu’elles épouseraient. Au cours de cette même nuit, les jeunes filles mettaient deux bougies allumées devant un miroir et s’endormaient. A minuit, elles devaient descendre en posant à terre le pied droit le premier, puis regarder dans le miroir où continuaint de brûler les bougies: elles devaient y voir l’image de leur futur mari.
A la Chandeleur, on faisait des crêpes. Personne ne devait en emporter ce jour-là hors de la maison. On attendait le lendemain pour offrir le surplus éventual de crêpes que la maisonnée n´avait pu manger.
2.2.2.Origine et symbolique de la crêpe
Sa forme et sa couleur évoque le Soleil enfin de retour après la nuit de l'hiver. On dit aussi que le pape Gélase 1er, qui christianisa la Chandeleur, réconfortait les pèlerins arrivés à Rome avec des crêpes.
Enfin la crêpe utilise le froment en quantité et les moissons ne sont alors plus très loin. Elle protège en outre la récolte de la moisissure et le foyer du malheur.De nombreux proverbes en témoignent:"Si point ne veut de blé charbonneux, mange des crêpes à la Chandeleur".Il faut faire sauter les crêpes avec une pièce dans la main afin de s'assurer prospérité toutel'année. Le tout aux lueurs des chandelles, qui par ailleurs éviteront à la cuisine de rester enfumée pendant 3 jours !
Celui qui retourne sa crêpe avec adresse, qui ne laisse pas tomber à terre, celui-là aura du bonheur jusqu’à la Chandeleur prochaine. On fait sauter la première crêpe sur l'armoire, car elle ne moisira jamais. Cela peut sembler curieux mais il parait que ça préserve de la moisissure l'ensemble de la future récolte !
En ville on se limitera à faire sauter les crêpes avec adresse avec une pièce dans la main, sauf si le lancer de crêpes sur armoire vous amuse.
2.3.Mardi-Gras(Le 23-28 Février)
2.3.1.Mardi-Gras - Carnaval
Parce que durant toute la période de Carnaval il y avait suspension temporaire des règles de vie normales, on jouissait sans impunité d’une certaine licence de mœurs, de droit aux plaisanteries et aux insultes, on faisait de quêtes cérémonielles et des defilés; danses et jeux enfin étaient à l’honneur.
Le Mardi gras en Loire-Atlantique, on “queunait”. “Jouer à la queune” cela veut dire que ce jour-là, on lançait une boule de bois contre la porte de qui l’on désirait. A ce bruit, il était contraint d’ouvrir sa porte et d’offrir à boire aux joueurs. A Nantes, chaque jour gras était affable d’un nom parodique: le Dimanche gras était appelé la Saint-Goulard, le Lundi gras la Saint-Pansard et Mardi gras la Saint-Dégobillard.
2.3.2.Les origines de la fête
Né à Arbrissel, le bienheureux Robert d’Arbrissel fut chancelier de Bretagne. Il fonda l’abbaye de la Roë pour les chanoines réguliers , puis fut le fondateur de Fontvrault ou Font-Évraud près de Saumur en Maine-et-Loire.
Le bienheureux sut en son temps rappeler à ses ouailles d’Arbrissel qu’il était formellement interdit de travailler le jour de Seigneur; à cette époque, les paysans se battaient sans cesse contre les fougères qui envahissaient toute la région. Le Bienheureux se promenant une dimanche à travers la campagne, surprit une femme en train d’arracher les fougères qui se trouvaient particulièrement vivaces en son champ. La pécheresse fut réprimandée et promit au Bienheureux de respecter, à l’avenir, les commandements de Dieu; en échange de quoi, elle obtint de lui que son champ fût délivrer à jamais de ses fougères, ce qui n’éxistait nulle part ailleurs dans la commune d’Arbrissel, couverte de la fameuse plante.
2.3.3.Coutumes
Les petites filles de Saint-Lunaire avaient elles aussi leurs joutes de Mardi gras. Un combat d’œufs était organisé pour elles: il s’agissit pour chacune de casser le plus grand nombre d’œufs possible sans briser celui qui leur servait à détruire les autres. Ce n’était pas si facile! Certaines filles étaient particulièrement reputées pour ce jeu. La gagnante était nommée reine de l’assemblée et était portée en ovation à travers la ville. Les écoliers de la région de Saint-Malo se retrouvaient le Mardi gras pour leurs rituals et tant attendus combats de coqs. Depuis quelques jours déjà, ils se préparaient chacun au combat en soignant leurs coqs et en les nourissant de matières échauffantes comme les chènevis. La cour de l’école était ce jour-là envahie par les adultes qui venaient assister à un spectacle tout aussi rituel que celui qu’ils organisaient eux mêmes. Le coq qui avait fait le plus grand nombre de victims rendait son propriétaire “ roi de l’assemblée”. Il était porté à travers la ville sur un trône improvisé; à la suite de quoi, un banquet prolongeait les festivités.
2.3.4.Mardi Gras-Fête de l’amour?
Deux bœufs, sept veaux, quatorze barriques de cidre et d’autres de vin, une tonne de pommes de terre, tout cela pour nourrir et abreuver les participants d’une seule noce! Ajoutons pour vous rassurer qu’il n’y avait pas moins de mille cinq cents personnes ce jour de Mardi gras à Elven en 1949 et plusieurs couples à marier! Dans la Morbihan, une grand partie des mariages collectifs avaient lieu le Mardi gras, ainsi que dans le Finistère comme à Sizun pour le Grand-Mardi, et à Plougastel où ils étaient plus modestes: trente à quarante couples pourtant étaient mariés dans la même heure.
Les tournées de quête en Carnaval étaient fort nombreuses. Déstinées à collecter des victuailles pour le grand festin de Mardi gras, elles concernaient les corporations de tout genre, les enfants de chœur et les marguilliers, les enfants pauvres et les mendiants. Jusqu’à la Révolution, un repas de Mardi gras offert par l’évêque réunissait autour de grandes tables tous les mendiants du pays. L’invitation était annoncée au prône de la grand-messe de toutes les églises des environs. On dressait des tables dans la cour de l’évêché, et les convives de se faire servir par … l’évêque et son chapitre! Une distribution de pain, de viande, de vêtements et d’argent terminait le repas.
Les quêtes sur le seuil des maisons, en cette période de Carnaval, ne différaient pas beaucoup de celles du premier de l’an. On improvisait des chansons de circonstance, et les chanteurs recevaient en échange des morceaux de lard qu’ils accrochaient sur un baton.
2.4.Les Pâques(Le 21 Avril)
Le jour de Pâques est pour les chrétiens le jour de la résurrection du Christ, qui marque la fin du carême et se célèbre dans la joie.
Cette coutume avait cours au Moyen Age à Nantes et fut interdite par un concile en 1431. Les prêtres et les clercs avaient plus d´un fil à retordre pour obtenir des Bretons le respect des traditions chrétiennes. Attention à ceux qui, le matin de Pâques, paressaient dans leur lit! Les prêtres et clercs ne se gênaient pas pour entrer de force dans les maisons, relevant les paresseux de leur lit et les emportant sans ménagement jusqu´à l´église où ils allaient subir le baptême des indolents. De grands baquets d´eau froide leur étaient préparés et renversés sur le dos sans pitié.
2.4.1.La pêche
L´eau bénite faisait partie des choses qui se trouvaient toujours à bord d´un bateau de pêche. Sur les sardiniers du Morbihan et lorsqu´on avait atteint le lieu de pêche, les marins trempaient tous un doigt dans la bouteille d´eau bénite avant de lancer les filets. On augmentait ainsi ses chances de faire une belle capture. “On va faire une triste marée”, disaient les pêcheurs de Saint-Cast lorsque le premier poisson était pêché par un pêcheur réputé pour avoir une mauvaise main. Avait-il la main chanceuse, on était assure du contraire. Le bateau qui ramenait au port les premières sardines de la saison en Finistère décorait son grand mât de bouquets fleuris.
La légende veut que les cloches s’envolent de Rome et, survolant le ciel de France, laissent tomber des oeufs en chocolat que les enfants découvrent dans les jardins… (ou dans leur assiette!).
Les confiseurs maintenant proposent d’autres personnages en chocolat: poules, lapins, cloches et poissons font aussi partie du folklore de Pâques et si on veut faire un repas de Pâques traditionnel, on se doit de préparer un gigot d’agneau.
3.Du folklore français…
Chaque pays a ses croyances, chaque peuple a ses superstitions et chaque histoire a ses origines- plus ou moins crédibles.
3.1.La veille des Rois – Vision du futur mari
Si le ciel était étoilé la veille des Rois, cela signifiait un été sec cette année là. Pour voir en rêve le jeune homme qu´elles épouseraient, les jeunes filles de Haute-Bretagne devaient mettre en se couchant trios feuilles de laurier sous leur oreiller et dire en s´endormant : Gaspard - Melchior – Balthazar – Dites-moi en mon dormant – Qui j´aurai de mon vivant.
3.2.Le manque de croyance aux Pâques
On prétendait en Haute-Bretagne qu´au cours de la veille de Pâques, toutes les pierres se transformaient en pain et l´eau en cidre. Et, comme en tout pays, il se trouva un incrédule pour se moquer de la croyance, il attendit un Samedi saint que la nuit fut noire et s´aperçut en effet que le pain et que l´eau de la fontaine était du cidre. Il but et mangea de grand appétit. Malheur à lui! Au petit jour, le pain et le cidre reprirent leur consistance initiale et le pauvre homme mourut dans d´atroces souffrances.
3.3.Qu’est-ce que signifie “calvaire”?
De quelqu’un qui subit une lourde épreuve physique ou morale, on dit qu’il vit un calvaire. Cette métaphore fait référence au lieu où le Christ fut crucifié et mourut après de longues souffrances : une colline voisine de Jérusalem, nommée Golgotha ou Calvaire.Golgotha signifiait, en langue sémitique, "le Lieu du crâne". L’évangéliste Matthieu prend soin de noter ce détail (27,33) : "Arrivés au lieu dit Golgotha, c’est-à-dire Lieu du crâne…" Les traducteurs latins employèrent l’expression Locus calvariae, le nom calvaria signifiant "tête chauve", d’où "crâne". Peu à peu, Calvaria, origine de Calvaire, passa à l’état de nom propre.
3.4. L’histoire du Sapin
D'où vient cette coutume d'installer un arbre couvert de décorations pour la fête de Noël? On a là-dessus plusieurs hypothèses: l'une d'elles remonte très loin, vers les années 615, et on l'a retrouvée dans un très vieux manuscrit.Il semblait qu'à cette époque vivait un moine Irlandais, saint Colomban, qui était allé en France pour y construire des monastères. Un jour qu'il était dans une ville où personne ne venait l'écouter prêcher, il eut l'idée du sapin, le seul arbre encore vert à cette époque de l'année, car on était en hiver. Il monta sur une montagne voisine et garnit les branches d'un gros sapin avec des torches qu'il alluma toutes à la fois le soir venu. Cela se passait aux alentours de Noël. Les citoyens furent bien intrigués de voir cet arbre illuminé et accoururent pour ce rendre compte de ce qui se passait. Ils trouvèrent là le moine Colomban, qui leur raconta comment Jésus était né dans une étable pour notre salut et en convertit un grand nombre. Pour commémorer cette conversion, les nouveaux chrétiens installèrent chaque année des sapins illuminés à Noël. D'autres ont suivi l'exemple de la coutume qui est venue jusqu'à nous.
Beaucoup de fêtes et de jours fériés (des jours où légalement on ne travaille pas) sont des fêtes d'origine catholique malgré la séparation de l'Eglise et de l'Etat pour permettre aux Français de pratiquer leur religion. Aujourd'hui, les gens étant moins religieux, les jeunes ignorent parfois l'origine de certaines traditions.
-Le 1er janvier: jour de l'An - On souhaite une "bonne année" et une "bonne santé" à sa famille, à ses amis, à ses voisins. On fait un repas de famille. Parfois on reçoit des "étrennes" (de l'argent ou de petits cadeaux). Pendant tout le mois de janvier, on envoie des cartes de voeux à tous ceux qu'on n'a pas vus pour les fêtes.
-Le 6 janvier ou le 1er dimanche du mois: l'Epiphanie - On tire les rois, c'est à dire qu'on mange une couronne des rois ou une galette qui contient un petit objet,la fève. La personne qui la trouve devient le roi ou la reine, met une couronne en papier sur sa tête et couronne son roi ou sa reine (voir annexe no. 1)
-Le 2 février: la Chandeleur- On mange des crêpes. Cela porte bonheur de les faire sauter avec un morceau d'or (une bague par exemple) dans la main.
-Le 14 février: la Saint-Valentin- C'est la fête de l'amour. Les amoureux sortent, vont au restaurant et les jeunes filles reçoivent des fleurs ou des bijoux.
-Le Mardi Gras: C'est le jour avant le mercredi des Cendres (le 1er jour du Carême - Les 40 jours avant Pâques pendant lesquels on ne mangeait pas de viande autrefois.) Dans certaines villes en France comme Nice ou La Nouvelle Orléans aux Etats-Unis, on peut s'amuser au carnaval et regarder les chars défiler.
-La Mi-Carême: Les enfants se déguisent et on assiste à un défilé de chars souvent en fleurs (ou en fleurs en papier) avec des fanfares et des majorettes (voir annexe no. 3). Au Québec, le dernier char est celui du Bonhomme carnaval mais en France, c'est celui de la reine et de ses deux dauphines qui marque la fin du défilé. Pour s'amuser, on lance des serpentins et des confettis.
-Le 1er avril: On fait ou on dit des blagues. A la fin, on dit "poisson d'avril!" (On peut parfois accrocher discrètement un poisson en papier dans le dos d'une personne.)
-Le dimanche des Rameaux: Le dimanche avant Pâques, les catholiques vont à l'église avec une petite branche de rameau ou de buis (un arbuste avec de très petites feuilles).
-Pâques: les enfants reçoivent des oeufs en sucre et en chocolat (voir annexe no. 4); beaucoup de familles profitent de ce long weekend pour se retrouver autour d'une table, il n'y a pas de plats traditionnels le jour de Pâques. On servira peut-être un plat qu'on mange moins souvent comme un gigot de mouton ou un lapin.
-Le 1er mai: fête du travail- Pendant ce jour férié on s'offre un petit bouquet de muguet. 13 petites fleurs blanches sur un brin portent bonheur. Les syndicats défilent dans les rues.
-Le 8 mai: jour férié pour célébrer l'armistice de la deuxième guerre mondiale. Les politiciens et les anciens soldats déposent des fleurs au pied du monument aux morts.
-Le jeudi de l'Ascension: jour férié - fête catholique 40 jours après Pâques pour célébrer la montée de Jésus au paradis.
-La fête des mères: cette fête est en général à la fin du mois de mai - On offre un cadeau ou des fleurs à sa mère en lui disant "Bonne fête, maman!".
-Le dimanche et le lundi de la Pentecôte: jours fériés (fête catholique)
-La fête des pères: on offre un cadeau à son père un dimanche vers la mi-juin.
-Le 21juin: fête de la musique - Des musiciens amateurs et professionnels de tout âge, seuls ou en groupes, jouent dans les rues.
-Le 14 juillet: fête nationale- On célèbre la prise de la Bastille qui a marqué le commencement de la révolution en 1789. Ce jour-là, il y a des défilés militaires, des bals dans les rues et des feux d'artifices le soir. Dans certains villages, on organise une retraite aux flambeaux le 13 (voir annexe no. 5).
-Le 15 août: jour férié - fête catholique pour célébrer l'Assomption de la Vierge Marie. On fait souvent un repas de famille.
-Le 11 novembre: jour férié pour célébrer l'armistice de la première guerre mondiale en 1918. On dépose des fleurs sur la tombe du soldat inconnu (sous l'Arc de triomphe) et au pied des monuments aux morts.
-Le 25 novembre: la Sainte Catherine - ce jour-là, les jeunes filles célibataires de 25ans ou plus portent un chapeau excentrique (au travail par exemple). On les appelle "les Catherinettes".
-Le 25 décembre: Noël - La veille de Noël, vers minuit, on fait un grand repas, appelé le réveillon. On mange des plats traditionnels comme le foie gras (ou le pâté de foie gras), des fruits de mer (des huîtres servies dans leur coquille), de la dinde farcie aux marrons ou des boudins blancs truffés (ou un autre plat selon les familles), du fromage, et en dessert, un gâteau, appelé “bûche” ( gâteau roulé avec une crème au beurre). On boit bien sûr du vin et du champagne!
-Le 31 décembre: la Saint Sylvestre - On fait plus ou moins le même repas que pour Noël mais avec ses amis, au restaurant ou chez soi (voir annexe no. 6).
2.Connaissez-vous la raison de l’existence des fêtes?
Noël, Pâques, le Mardi Gras, la fête du printemps, les anniversaires de naissance, les carnavals, les festivals, les parades, les fêtes paroissiales...
Aimez-vous célébrer? Avez-vous le sens de la fête? Connaissez-vous la raison de l'existence de toutes ces célébrations?
2.1.L’Épiphanie(Le 4 janvier)
2.1.1.Épiphanie-coutumes et croyances
Ce n’est pas un jour férié mais une fête d’origine religieuse. Elle commémore la visite des “Rois mages” venus offrir leur présents, l’or, la myrrhe et l’encens, à l’Enfant Jésus .
On attribue pourtant la fête des Rois à une origine plus païenne… On sait que, déjà, les Romains célébraient une fête des Rois à l´époque des Saturnales, tirant au sort avec des fèves qui serait roi du festin. Eux-mêmes empruntèrent cet usage aux Grecs qui se servaient des fèves pour l´élection de leurs magistrats. En succédant au paganisme, le christianisme chercha à consacrer ces fêtes par ses rites et ses cérémonies propres: le 5 janvier, veille de l´Épiphanie, les chanoines élisaient dans leurs cathédrales un roi parmi eux. Une fois installé le roi, chacun venait lui offrir des présents. Un festin couronnait ce jour de fête. Rentrant chez eux, les fidèles en firent autant et élirent un roi parmi eux au moyen d´une fève cachée dans un gateau. La première part, appelée la part de Dieu, était réservée aux voyageurs, aux pèlerins, ou aux pauvres qui viendraient ce soir-là à la porte.
En Bretagne, la veille de la fête des Rois, les enfants de chœurs, marguilliers, jeunes et mendiants venaient quêter la part de Dieu sur le seuil des maisons.
A Saint-Pol-de-Léon , une procession, constituée d´un pauvre de l´hospice en tête, puis des notables, des marguilliers de la ville et des enfants, s´arrêtait de porte en porte. Chaque habitant offrait des victuailles ou une petite obole. On les déposait dans le panniers porté par un cheval décoré de rubans, de gui et de laurier. « Inguinané! Inguinané! » Criaient alors les enfants. Le produit de la quête était distribué aux pauvres afin qu´ils puissent, eux aussi, fêter l´Épiphanie.
2.1.2.Vision moderniste d’une fête ancienne
Dans un pays qui a aboli la royauté d’une manière assez brutale, il est amusant de voir que cette coutume est toujours pratiquée, non seulement à la maison, mais aussi au bureau, chez les amis… et même à l’Élysée, chez le président de la République! En fait c’est tout au long du mois de janvier qu’on peut acheter dans les boulangeries ces galettes des rois. La recette et la présentation varie du nord au Midi, les motifs des fèves sont très variés (il existe des collectionneurs de fèves!) mais toutes sont vendues avec l’indispensable couronne.
2.2La Chandeleur (Le 2 février)
2.2.1.La chandeleur-Les traditions
On célèbre ce jour la présentation de Jésus au Temple et les relevailles de la Vierge, quarante jours après Noël. Au quarantième jour après la naissance de Jésus, la Vierge se rendit au Temple présenter, pour sa purification, deux tourterelles et deux pigeons.
Chandeleur nous vient de la coutume selon laquelle, en ce jour, on faisait autrefois des processions avec des chandelles allumées. Le pape Gélase fit supprimer la cérémonie en 472 mais les traditions de la Chandeleur sont restées.
En Bretagne, ce cierge était précieusement conservé. On ne l´allumait dans l´année qu´au cours de violents orages. On s´agenouillait alors et on adressait une prière. Ce cierge était béni le jour de la Chandeleur à l´église, suivit aprés d´une procession (voir annexe no. 2).
Le jour de la Chandeleur, en Loire-Atlantique, on fleurissait les ruches. Une branche de saule ou de noisetier les plaçait sous la bienveillance céleste. On remplaçait parfois la branche par des chatons de couldre ou de sauldre (noisetier ou saule) que l´on mettait à l´intérieur de la ruche. On évitait de se marier à la Chandeleur. A Rennes , prétendait que cela portait malheur.
La veille de la Chandleur était particulièrement propice aux jeunes filles qui désiraient connaître l’homme qu’elles épouseraient. Au cours de cette même nuit, les jeunes filles mettaient deux bougies allumées devant un miroir et s’endormaient. A minuit, elles devaient descendre en posant à terre le pied droit le premier, puis regarder dans le miroir où continuaint de brûler les bougies: elles devaient y voir l’image de leur futur mari.
A la Chandeleur, on faisait des crêpes. Personne ne devait en emporter ce jour-là hors de la maison. On attendait le lendemain pour offrir le surplus éventual de crêpes que la maisonnée n´avait pu manger.
2.2.2.Origine et symbolique de la crêpe
Sa forme et sa couleur évoque le Soleil enfin de retour après la nuit de l'hiver. On dit aussi que le pape Gélase 1er, qui christianisa la Chandeleur, réconfortait les pèlerins arrivés à Rome avec des crêpes.
Enfin la crêpe utilise le froment en quantité et les moissons ne sont alors plus très loin. Elle protège en outre la récolte de la moisissure et le foyer du malheur.De nombreux proverbes en témoignent:"Si point ne veut de blé charbonneux, mange des crêpes à la Chandeleur".Il faut faire sauter les crêpes avec une pièce dans la main afin de s'assurer prospérité toutel'année. Le tout aux lueurs des chandelles, qui par ailleurs éviteront à la cuisine de rester enfumée pendant 3 jours !
Celui qui retourne sa crêpe avec adresse, qui ne laisse pas tomber à terre, celui-là aura du bonheur jusqu’à la Chandeleur prochaine. On fait sauter la première crêpe sur l'armoire, car elle ne moisira jamais. Cela peut sembler curieux mais il parait que ça préserve de la moisissure l'ensemble de la future récolte !
En ville on se limitera à faire sauter les crêpes avec adresse avec une pièce dans la main, sauf si le lancer de crêpes sur armoire vous amuse.
2.3.Mardi-Gras(Le 23-28 Février)
2.3.1.Mardi-Gras - Carnaval
Parce que durant toute la période de Carnaval il y avait suspension temporaire des règles de vie normales, on jouissait sans impunité d’une certaine licence de mœurs, de droit aux plaisanteries et aux insultes, on faisait de quêtes cérémonielles et des defilés; danses et jeux enfin étaient à l’honneur.
Le Mardi gras en Loire-Atlantique, on “queunait”. “Jouer à la queune” cela veut dire que ce jour-là, on lançait une boule de bois contre la porte de qui l’on désirait. A ce bruit, il était contraint d’ouvrir sa porte et d’offrir à boire aux joueurs. A Nantes, chaque jour gras était affable d’un nom parodique: le Dimanche gras était appelé la Saint-Goulard, le Lundi gras la Saint-Pansard et Mardi gras la Saint-Dégobillard.
2.3.2.Les origines de la fête
Né à Arbrissel, le bienheureux Robert d’Arbrissel fut chancelier de Bretagne. Il fonda l’abbaye de la Roë pour les chanoines réguliers , puis fut le fondateur de Fontvrault ou Font-Évraud près de Saumur en Maine-et-Loire.
Le bienheureux sut en son temps rappeler à ses ouailles d’Arbrissel qu’il était formellement interdit de travailler le jour de Seigneur; à cette époque, les paysans se battaient sans cesse contre les fougères qui envahissaient toute la région. Le Bienheureux se promenant une dimanche à travers la campagne, surprit une femme en train d’arracher les fougères qui se trouvaient particulièrement vivaces en son champ. La pécheresse fut réprimandée et promit au Bienheureux de respecter, à l’avenir, les commandements de Dieu; en échange de quoi, elle obtint de lui que son champ fût délivrer à jamais de ses fougères, ce qui n’éxistait nulle part ailleurs dans la commune d’Arbrissel, couverte de la fameuse plante.
2.3.3.Coutumes
Les petites filles de Saint-Lunaire avaient elles aussi leurs joutes de Mardi gras. Un combat d’œufs était organisé pour elles: il s’agissit pour chacune de casser le plus grand nombre d’œufs possible sans briser celui qui leur servait à détruire les autres. Ce n’était pas si facile! Certaines filles étaient particulièrement reputées pour ce jeu. La gagnante était nommée reine de l’assemblée et était portée en ovation à travers la ville. Les écoliers de la région de Saint-Malo se retrouvaient le Mardi gras pour leurs rituals et tant attendus combats de coqs. Depuis quelques jours déjà, ils se préparaient chacun au combat en soignant leurs coqs et en les nourissant de matières échauffantes comme les chènevis. La cour de l’école était ce jour-là envahie par les adultes qui venaient assister à un spectacle tout aussi rituel que celui qu’ils organisaient eux mêmes. Le coq qui avait fait le plus grand nombre de victims rendait son propriétaire “ roi de l’assemblée”. Il était porté à travers la ville sur un trône improvisé; à la suite de quoi, un banquet prolongeait les festivités.
2.3.4.Mardi Gras-Fête de l’amour?
Deux bœufs, sept veaux, quatorze barriques de cidre et d’autres de vin, une tonne de pommes de terre, tout cela pour nourrir et abreuver les participants d’une seule noce! Ajoutons pour vous rassurer qu’il n’y avait pas moins de mille cinq cents personnes ce jour de Mardi gras à Elven en 1949 et plusieurs couples à marier! Dans la Morbihan, une grand partie des mariages collectifs avaient lieu le Mardi gras, ainsi que dans le Finistère comme à Sizun pour le Grand-Mardi, et à Plougastel où ils étaient plus modestes: trente à quarante couples pourtant étaient mariés dans la même heure.
Les tournées de quête en Carnaval étaient fort nombreuses. Déstinées à collecter des victuailles pour le grand festin de Mardi gras, elles concernaient les corporations de tout genre, les enfants de chœur et les marguilliers, les enfants pauvres et les mendiants. Jusqu’à la Révolution, un repas de Mardi gras offert par l’évêque réunissait autour de grandes tables tous les mendiants du pays. L’invitation était annoncée au prône de la grand-messe de toutes les églises des environs. On dressait des tables dans la cour de l’évêché, et les convives de se faire servir par … l’évêque et son chapitre! Une distribution de pain, de viande, de vêtements et d’argent terminait le repas.
Les quêtes sur le seuil des maisons, en cette période de Carnaval, ne différaient pas beaucoup de celles du premier de l’an. On improvisait des chansons de circonstance, et les chanteurs recevaient en échange des morceaux de lard qu’ils accrochaient sur un baton.
2.4.Les Pâques(Le 21 Avril)
Le jour de Pâques est pour les chrétiens le jour de la résurrection du Christ, qui marque la fin du carême et se célèbre dans la joie.
Cette coutume avait cours au Moyen Age à Nantes et fut interdite par un concile en 1431. Les prêtres et les clercs avaient plus d´un fil à retordre pour obtenir des Bretons le respect des traditions chrétiennes. Attention à ceux qui, le matin de Pâques, paressaient dans leur lit! Les prêtres et clercs ne se gênaient pas pour entrer de force dans les maisons, relevant les paresseux de leur lit et les emportant sans ménagement jusqu´à l´église où ils allaient subir le baptême des indolents. De grands baquets d´eau froide leur étaient préparés et renversés sur le dos sans pitié.
2.4.1.La pêche
L´eau bénite faisait partie des choses qui se trouvaient toujours à bord d´un bateau de pêche. Sur les sardiniers du Morbihan et lorsqu´on avait atteint le lieu de pêche, les marins trempaient tous un doigt dans la bouteille d´eau bénite avant de lancer les filets. On augmentait ainsi ses chances de faire une belle capture. “On va faire une triste marée”, disaient les pêcheurs de Saint-Cast lorsque le premier poisson était pêché par un pêcheur réputé pour avoir une mauvaise main. Avait-il la main chanceuse, on était assure du contraire. Le bateau qui ramenait au port les premières sardines de la saison en Finistère décorait son grand mât de bouquets fleuris.
La légende veut que les cloches s’envolent de Rome et, survolant le ciel de France, laissent tomber des oeufs en chocolat que les enfants découvrent dans les jardins… (ou dans leur assiette!).
Les confiseurs maintenant proposent d’autres personnages en chocolat: poules, lapins, cloches et poissons font aussi partie du folklore de Pâques et si on veut faire un repas de Pâques traditionnel, on se doit de préparer un gigot d’agneau.
3.Du folklore français…
Chaque pays a ses croyances, chaque peuple a ses superstitions et chaque histoire a ses origines- plus ou moins crédibles.
3.1.La veille des Rois – Vision du futur mari
Si le ciel était étoilé la veille des Rois, cela signifiait un été sec cette année là. Pour voir en rêve le jeune homme qu´elles épouseraient, les jeunes filles de Haute-Bretagne devaient mettre en se couchant trios feuilles de laurier sous leur oreiller et dire en s´endormant : Gaspard - Melchior – Balthazar – Dites-moi en mon dormant – Qui j´aurai de mon vivant.
3.2.Le manque de croyance aux Pâques
On prétendait en Haute-Bretagne qu´au cours de la veille de Pâques, toutes les pierres se transformaient en pain et l´eau en cidre. Et, comme en tout pays, il se trouva un incrédule pour se moquer de la croyance, il attendit un Samedi saint que la nuit fut noire et s´aperçut en effet que le pain et que l´eau de la fontaine était du cidre. Il but et mangea de grand appétit. Malheur à lui! Au petit jour, le pain et le cidre reprirent leur consistance initiale et le pauvre homme mourut dans d´atroces souffrances.
3.3.Qu’est-ce que signifie “calvaire”?
De quelqu’un qui subit une lourde épreuve physique ou morale, on dit qu’il vit un calvaire. Cette métaphore fait référence au lieu où le Christ fut crucifié et mourut après de longues souffrances : une colline voisine de Jérusalem, nommée Golgotha ou Calvaire.Golgotha signifiait, en langue sémitique, "le Lieu du crâne". L’évangéliste Matthieu prend soin de noter ce détail (27,33) : "Arrivés au lieu dit Golgotha, c’est-à-dire Lieu du crâne…" Les traducteurs latins employèrent l’expression Locus calvariae, le nom calvaria signifiant "tête chauve", d’où "crâne". Peu à peu, Calvaria, origine de Calvaire, passa à l’état de nom propre.
3.4. L’histoire du Sapin
D'où vient cette coutume d'installer un arbre couvert de décorations pour la fête de Noël? On a là-dessus plusieurs hypothèses: l'une d'elles remonte très loin, vers les années 615, et on l'a retrouvée dans un très vieux manuscrit.Il semblait qu'à cette époque vivait un moine Irlandais, saint Colomban, qui était allé en France pour y construire des monastères. Un jour qu'il était dans une ville où personne ne venait l'écouter prêcher, il eut l'idée du sapin, le seul arbre encore vert à cette époque de l'année, car on était en hiver. Il monta sur une montagne voisine et garnit les branches d'un gros sapin avec des torches qu'il alluma toutes à la fois le soir venu. Cela se passait aux alentours de Noël. Les citoyens furent bien intrigués de voir cet arbre illuminé et accoururent pour ce rendre compte de ce qui se passait. Ils trouvèrent là le moine Colomban, qui leur raconta comment Jésus était né dans une étable pour notre salut et en convertit un grand nombre. Pour commémorer cette conversion, les nouveaux chrétiens installèrent chaque année des sapins illuminés à Noël. D'autres ont suivi l'exemple de la coutume qui est venue jusqu'à nous.
Le français - la seconde langue internationale
Le français est devenu la seconde langue internationale après l'anglais. Linguistiquement parlant, le terme de francophone caractérise tout locuteur qui utilise le français comme langue maternelle. Mais la réalité est plus complexe. Il faut distinguer aussi les pays où le français est la langue officielle et même, selon une expression plus récente, ceux qui «ont en commun l'usage du français».
Grâce à son statut de langue officielle (ou co-officielle) dans quelque 37 États, le français reste la deuxième langue du monde sur le plan de la puissance politique. Même si, à l'exemple de l'anglais, il n'est pas la langue maternelle de tous les citoyens dans la plupart des pays concernés, le français occupe des positions stratégiques privilégiées comme langue administrative, langue d'enseignement, langue de l'armée, langue de la justice, langue des médias, langue du commerce ou des affaires, etc.
1 Les racines historiques
Si le français a d'abord été la première langue de la France, c'est parce qu'il a été celle du roi, c'est-à-dire celle du prince le plus puissant, celui qui possédait la plus grande armée et qui prélevait les plus forts impôts. Par la suite, si le français a été la première langue de l'Europe, et ce, du Moyen Âge jusqu'au XVIIIe siècle, c'est parce que la France était le pays le plus peuplé du continent, et que, par voie de conséquence, son monarque était le plus riche et le plus puissant. Ainsi, la cause première de l'expansion du français en Europe et en Amérique est d'ordre démographique, puis d'ordre économique et militaire. Cette observation pourrait, bien sûr, s'appliquer à l'histoire de l'anglais, mais aussi à celle de l'espagnol, du portugais, de l'arabe, du russe, etc.
L'implantation du français en Afrique est plus récente. À l'exception du Sénégal où des postes français ont été établis dès le XVIIIe siècle, l'expansion de cette langue a commencé au XIXe siècle avec de nouvelles conquêtes militaires, l'effort d'évangélisation et le développement de l'appareil scolaire. Il en est de même pour l'Océanie (Polynésie française, Nouvelle-Calédonie, Vanuatu, etc.).
2 Le français langue maternelle
En principe, la notion de français langue maternelle ne s'applique qu'à ceux qui le parlent en France (82,5 %), au Canada (25,6 %), en Belgique (40,5 %), en Suisse (18,4 %) et dans la principauté de Monaco (58 %). Avec ces seuls pays, on ne compterait que 72 millions de francophones.
Cependant, bien qu'ils soient partout minoritaires, il faut dénombrer également les locuteurs du français langue maternelle dans les différents autres pays francophones répartis surtout en Afrique et en Océanie, mais présents aussi aux Antilles et aux États-Unis. Si l'on compte les véritables francophones d'Afrique (22 États), des Antilles et des États-Unis (1,7 million), d'Océanie, on compterait 109 millions de locuteurs francophones. En 2007, selon une évaluation contenue dans un rapport de l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie publié à Paris, le nombre de francophones sur la planète aurait franchi pour la première fois la barre des 200 millions, dont 72 millions de «francophones partiels». En 2005, une précédente étude avait estimé le nombre de francophones à 175 millions de personnes. Le nombre de personnes étudiant en français ou apprenant la langue a aussi augmenté; il était descendu à 90 millions en 2002. Il tournerait maintenant autour de 118 millions.
3 Le français langue seconde
Le français est une langue d'enseignement de grande importance dans le monde. En fait, son enseignement aux non-francophones constitue une donnée fondamentale dans le concept de francophonie. Là où le français a acquis le statut de langue officielle, de langue co-officielle ou de langue administrative, il est enseigné comme langue seconde; là où le français ne dispose d'aucun statut officiel, comme au États-Unis, en Colombie, au Royaume-Uni ou au Laos, il est enseigné comme langue étrangère. Précisons que, dans les pays où le français est l'unique langue officielle, il est enseigné à tous les élèves dès le primaire. En tant que langue seconde, il est principalement enseigné au primaire, parfois au secondaire.
Une constatation s'impose lorsqu'on se demande où le français est le plus enseigné comme langue seconde ou langue étrangère: c'est avant tout dans les pays francophones d'Afrique noire, puis dans les pays arabophones d'Afrique ainsi que dans les pays anglophones, lusophones (portugais) et hispanophones.
Sur le plan de la francophonie mondiale, on compte présentement plus de 145 millions de personnes scolarisées en français dans le monde, tous les secteurs d'enseignements réunis (langue maternelle, langue seconde, langue étrangère). En fait, jamais dans l'histoire du français autant de personnes n'ont appris et parlé cette langue. Selon le Conseil économique et social de Paris, le nombre des «francophones» devait atteindre même les 500 millions en l'an 2010.
Le très net déclin du français langue seconde ou étrangère, qui avait commencé dans les années 1960, semble avoir été stoppé. Certains pays d'Europe (Finlande, Irlande, Norvège, Suède, Autriche, Bulgarie, etc.), du Proche-Orient (Égypte, Turquie, Israël, Émirats arabes unis, etc.) et d'Amérique (Brésil, Colombie, Pérou, États-Unis, Canada) connaissent présentement une très nette augmentation des élèves du français langue seconde ou étrangère.
Mais c'est en Afrique francophone et dans les pays du Maghreb que la proportion des effectifs scolaires a le plus augmenté. La population des élèves scolarisés en français est passée de 8 % (1960) à 33 % (1981). Les prospectives pour l'an 2000 montrent une augmentation de 267 % de scolarisés en français, tandis que l'augmentation de la population sera de 73 %. Dans les pays du Maghreb (Algérie, Maroc, Tunisie), pourtant soumis à une politique d'arabisation poussée, la proportion des enfants scolarisés en français a déjà dépassé les 40 %. Bref, comme le français est enseigné dans la quasi-totalité des États du monde, sa situation lui procure une dimension et une portée vraiment internationales... après l'anglais.
4 Le statut juridique du français
Le français, rappelons-le, demeure la deuxième langue du monde sur le plan géopolitique avec 53 États dans 29 pays (contre 61 États et 53 pays pour l'anglais). Il constitue néanmoins, dans une cinquantaine de pays (52 États membres de la Francophonie), une langue administrative, d'enseignement, de la justice, des médias, du commerce ou des affaires et la langue de l'armée. Le statut juridique du français ne se limite pas aux pays où le français est langue officielle ou co-officielle, mais aussi à un certain nombre d'États non souverains.
En Europe, le français est l'unique langue officielle en France, dans la principauté de Monaco et au grand-duché du Luxembourg. En Afrique, il est la seule langue officielle au Bénin, au Burkina Faso, en République centrafricaine, au Congo-Brazzaville, en Côte d'Ivoire, au Gabon, en Guinée, au Mali, au Niger, à la Réunion, au Sénégal et au Togo. En Amérique, il conserve ce statut dans les départements français d'outre-mer (DOM): Martinique et Guadeloupe, Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon, Guyane française. En Océanie, c'est dans les territoires français d'outre-mer (TOM) qu'il jouit de ce même statut: Nouvelle-Calédonie, Polynésie française, les îles Wallis et Futuna.
Par ailleurs, le français est une langue co-officielle en Belgique (français-néerlandais-allemand), en Suisse (français-allemand-italien), au Canada (français-anglais), à Haïti (français-créole), au Burundi (français-kirundi), au Cameroun (français-anglais), aux Comores (français-arabe), au Congo-Kinshasa (français-anglais), à Djibouti (arabe-français), en Guinée équatoriale (espagnol-français), à Madagascar (malgache-français), en Mauritanie (arabe-français), au Rwanda (kinyarwanda-français-anglais), aux Seychelles (anglais-français-créole), au Tchad (arabe-français).
De plus, le statut juridique du français s'étend aussi à plusieurs États non souverains. Il est l'unique langue officielle dans la Communauté française de Belgique, dans la province de Québec, dans les cantons suisses de Genève, de Neuchâtel, du Jura et de Vaud. C'est une langue co-officielle dans les cantons de Fribourg (français-allemand), du Valais (français-allemand) et de Berne (français-allemand), dans la province du Nouveau-Brunswick (français-anglais) et les Territoires du Nord-Ouest au Canada (français-anglais), dans le Val-d'Aoste (français-italien) en Italie. Mentionnons enfin le territoire autonome de Pondichéry (français-tamoul) en Inde.
Conformément à son statut de langue officielle, le français est utilisé, en totalité ou en partie, au Parlement, dans la rédaction des lois, dans les services gouvernementaux ou administratifs, dans les domaines de la justice, de l'éducation, dans la police et les forces armées, dans les médias, le commerce, le monde du travail, l'affichage, etc. Si on tient compte du fait que l'application du statut juridique varie d'un pays à l'autre ou d'une région à l'autre, il s'avère difficile de décrire celle-ci de façon concrète dans le cas du français. Comment savoir, par exemple, si l'affichage est aussi français en Côte d'Ivoire qu'en France, si les écoles francophones sont moins françaises au val d'Aoste qu'en Ontario, si les services municipaux en français sont mieux dispensés en Tunisie qu'en Alberta, etc.
Lors du VIIIe Sommet francophone à Moncton en septembre 1999, les 52 États suivants étaient représentés:
Albanie, Belgique, Bénin, Bulgarie, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodge, Cameroun, Canada, Cap-Vert, Centrafrique, Communauté française de Belgique (Wallonie-Bruxelles), Comores, Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, Côte d’Ivoire, Djibouti, Dominique, Égypte, France, Gabon, Guinée, Guinée-Bissau, Guinée équatoriale, Haïti, Laos, Liban, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Mali, Maroc, Maurice, Mauritanie, Moldavie, Monaco, Macédoine (ex-république yougoslave de Macédoine), Niger, Nouveau-Brunswick, Pologne, Québec, Roumanie, Rwanda, Saint-Thomas-et-Prince, Sainte-Lucie, Sénégal, Seychelles, Suisse, Tchad, Togo, Tunisie, Vanuatu, Vietnam
Le statut de langue internationale du français est réel avec 51 États de langue officielle française dans 29 pays, mais apparaît fragile dans une certaine mesure. Au point de vue des effectifs de ses locuteurs, cette langue progresse très vite, proportionnellement plus que l'anglais; cela est dû à la formidable poussée démographique des pays africains, incluant le Maghreb. On constate des progrès presque fulgurants de l'enseignement en français dans des populations jadis peu scolarisées. C'est cependant un atout qui peut se retourner contre le français, car il n'est nulle part langue maternelle, hormis en France, en Belgique wallonne, en Suisse romande, au Québec et dans quelques régions isolées du Canada anglais. En Amérique, le français se cantonne dans deux États, l'un, petit et pauvre, Haïti; l'autre, le Québec, riche mais sous-peuplé et atteint de décroissance démographique. En fait, la France demeure l'unique pôle solide de la francophonie. C'est une faiblesse dans la mesure où tout repose sur la puissance et la richesse de ce seul pays. La perte de prestige de la France entraînerait nécessairement le déclin du français comme langue internationale. Pour le moment (statistiques de 1991), on peut estimer que 250 millions à 300 millions de personnes sont en contact avec la langue française, mais, selon les projections, ce nombre devait atteindre, rappelons-le, les 500 millions en l'an 2010.
Page d'accueil
Auteur : Jacques Leclerc,
membre associé au TLFQ
http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/index.shtml
British legends notes
King Arthur
New Arrivals. As the Roman hold on
The Anglo-Saxons. These Germanic tribes are the "Anglo-Saxons" to whom we owe much of our tradition, language, and physical heritage. They poured in upon the Romanized Celts of England much as the Normans would do to them in later times, pushing the inhabitants of the island back into the hills of Wales and Cornwall, creating pockets of Celtic culture and language.
At first the British inhabitants fell back to the heights of the old Iron Age hill forts. There is evidence that many forts were reoccupied in the late 5th century. Gradually, however, even this struggle proved in vain, and the Germanic invaders settled throughout much of south, east, and northeast
The Roman warrior. It is during this push for settlement that the next and greatest British hero was born, the legendary King Arthur. Was King Arthur real? Not in the sense of the wonderful medieval romances popularized by Thomas Malory. There were no knights in shining armour searching for the Holy Grail in Arthur's company. In all likelihood there was no Round Table or Sword in the Stone. What there was instead was a very brave warrior, who may not even have been named Arthur, leading the remnants of romanised British resistance against a steady onslaught of foreign pagan invaders.
Conflicting claims. In researching this material I found definitively that Arthur was Welsh, Celtic, or Breton. That he fought the Saxons in the north, in the south, or in
The real Arthur (maybe). It seems that there was a war leader, whose name we do not know, who defeated the Saxons, checking their advance temporarily. In later years people remembered this leader with longing; "Oh, if we only had ... to lead us now". Eventually the name Arthur adhered to this folk memory, and his list of accomplishments grew. Arthur is in many ways greater because we do not know the truth.
The real Arthur may have been a man named Ambrosius Aurelianus, or perhaps his war leader, who defeated the Saxons in a major battle we know as Mount Badon, (which may possibly be South Cadbury, in Somerset) halting their advance for as long as forty years. In the end, however, the superior might and numbers of the Saxons and their allies were too much for the islanders, and Arthur's efforts became little more than a historical footnote. A terrifically romantic and exciting footnote though, for Arthur and his deeds were woven like a silk thread into the fabric of myth and legend in which Celtic storytellers delight.
Legends of Glastonbury
There are two main streams of legend that surround
Joseph of Arimathea
Joseph was the Biblical figure who took Jesus' body after the crucifixion. According to some legends he was actually Jesus' uncle, and had visited
At any rate, when Jesus died, Joseph thought it prudent to flee
When Joseph came to
Joseph was said to have established the first church in England at Glastonbury, and archaeological records show that there may well have been an extremely early Christian church here. What happened to the Holy Grail? Some legends have it that Joseph buried the Grail at the foot of Glastonbury Tor, whereupon a spring of blood gushed forth from the ground. There is a well at the base of the Tor, Chalice Well, and the water that issues from it does indeed have a reddish tinge to it, from the iron content of the water.
Other legends have it that the Holy Grail was interred with Joseph when he died, in a secret grave. The search for the mysterious Grail emerges again and again in the tales of
King Arthur and Glastonbury
The association of Arthur and Glastonbury goes back at least to the early Middle Ages. In the late 12th century the monks of
Glastonbury Tor, the enigmatic conical hill that rises above
One final myth of Arthur at
London
Alfred, Lord Tennyson was the first English writer to be awarded an hereditary title for his work. Author of many poems of great beauty and deep thought, an early supporter of women’s rights and grown from humble beginnings, as one of eleven children of a clergyman, he became
This is the man whose writings launched the modern myth movement that surrounds the legendary 5th/6th century King Arthur, his court at Camelot, Guinevere, Merlin the Magician, Sir Lancelot and the other Knights of the Round Table, and the quest for the Holy Grail - to mention just a few aspects - that are at the heart of today’s worldwide Arthurian industry. The study of the Arthurian legends brings together scholars, academics, romantics, realists, writers, educationalists, New-Agers, publishers, researchers and many others, in a whirlpool of theories, symbols, disputed facts, speculation, conjecture, individual interpretation and on-going investigation.
Tennyson’s epic story about King Arthur and Camelot was the beautifully written Idylls of the King.
The first of these 12 Arthurian poems was published in 1859. Tennyson’s poetic development of the legends that sprang from the Celtic origins of Camelot - believed by some to have been located at Caerleon-on-Usk, in what is now South Wales, or as proposed by Sir Thomas Malory, in his 15th century literary work"Le Morte d’Arthur", in Winchester, Hampshire - was not well received by some mid-19th century critics. But the Idylls proved enormously popular with the public and have been the source of great interest and study ever since.
It’s not surprising that many mythical connections with the Arthurian legends are encountered throughout southern
It is interesting to note that one of the locally recorded 17th century references to the location traces its ownership back to the family of medieval knight Sir Geoffrey de Mandeville, Earl of Essex, stories of whom abound in the area and whose ghost has been seen to appear in the neighbourhood on several occasions over past centuries.
In 1190 when the monks of Glastonbury claimed to have discovered the bodies of both King Arthur and Queen Guinevere, they produced as proof of the bodies’ identification a leaden cross inscribed "Here lies buried the renowned King Arthur with Guinevere his second wife, in the Isle of Avalon." Many years later, in the18th century, this cross disappeared.
The December 17th, 1981 edition of the Enfield Advertiser newspaper carried a report that an inscribed lead cross, bearing the name of King Arthur and described as "possibly a long lost amulet from the tomb of King Arthur", had been found in the grounds of Forty Hall, Enfield, just three miles from Camlet Moat. The discovery went on to receive major media attention from the Press and television in
About the author
Michael James Young is a London, England-based writer/photographer with a special interest in travel, leisure, and recreation- tel. 020 8449 8263 / fax 020 8440 8315) - email: michael.j.young@btinternet.com - Feb 22 2001
Article © 2001 Michael J. Young
Robin Hood
The "facts ", at least one romantic version of them, are these. In the time of Richard the Lionhearted a minor noble of Nottinghamshire, one Robin of Loxley, was outlawed for poaching deer. Now at that time the deer in a a royal forest belonged to the king, and killing one of the king's deer was therefore treason, and punishable by death.
So Robin took to the greenwood of
Someone, or maybe several someones, named Robin Hood existed at different times. Court records of the
One thing to note about the early legends is that Robin Hood was not an aristocrat, as he was later portrayed, but a simple yeoman driven to a life of crime by the harsh rule of the law of the rich. As such, it is easy to see how his story soon became a favourite folk tale among the poor.
There is, in the grounds of Kirklees Priory, a old grave stone, marking the final resting place of one "Robard Hude". Proof that part of the tale may be true? It would be nice to think so.
Resources
For a thorough examination of the Robin Hood legend, spend some time at these fascinating web sites:
Robin Hood Ltd
Robin Hood -- Bold Outlaw of Barnsdale and Sherwood
The Robin Hood Project
The Mabinogion
The Mabinogion is not one myth but a collection of stories gleaned from the traditions of Welsh bards and storytellers over many centuries. They were passed from one bard to another until anonymously collated in the 12th century. Later versions were written down in the White Book of Rhydderch (now in the Welsh National Library) and the Red Book of Hergest (now preserved at
The Mabonogi (the name means alternately "a story for children" or "a bard's tale" depending on whose translation you prefer) are comprised of 4 branches, entitled "Pwyll", "Branwen", Manawydan", and "Math". Aside from these four branches there are another 8 individual tales in the British and French style. Taken together, these tales of heroes and stirring deeds depict a Celtic vision of enchantment and romance that moves effortlessly between the physical landscape of
In some of the later stories King Arthur appears, though certainly not in the guise of the chivalrous knight known to modern readers. He is a giant, whose deeds involve ridding
Here are some short summaries of several popular tales of the Mabinogion.
"Olwen of the White Track"
Olwen was the daughter of Hawthorn, king of the race of giants. She was so beautiful that any who beheld her were filled with love. Wherever this maiden stepped, four white trefoils grew, which is reflected in her name - Olwen meaning "she of the White Track".
The hero Eilhwch decides that he will find and wed this beautiful maiden, despite the warning that no one ever returned from such a quest alive. In order to win his love, Eilhwch is set a series of heroic (read impossible) tasks by Olwen's father. [Note the similarity to the Hercules myth - that hero was also set twelve seemingly impossible tasks to perform, which he proceeded to do].
Pwyll, Prince of Dyfed, took a fancy one day to sit on a mound at Narberth (
Pwyll decided to pursue her himself, but again, no matter how fast he rode, he was unable to catch up to her. Finally, he called out to her, telling her that he loved her. Instantly she stopped, declaring with some humour that "it were better for the horse" that he called out sooner. The Lady Rhiannon said that her family was forcing her to marry someone against her wishes, but now she would have Pwyll or no-one. Sure enough, after many more adventures they were wed.
Branwen and the Invasion of Ireland
Bran, the King of
The Irish held their peace, but when they had treturned to
A note: Bran's castle is reputed to be at Harlech (not the much later
Maxen Wledig, Emperor of
Maxen Wledig had a dream in which he beheld a beautiful maiden who sat upon a golden throne. When he awoke he sent his servants out far and wide, and eventually they found the maiden in
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L'un de mes sketch préféré de Mr. Bigard
